UHlaliso lweSebethi kwiSigqibo soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States luqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchophela amatyala abachopheli-tyala kwezinye iimeko zabemi, ukumisa ukhuseleko olusisiseko kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Ngonyaka we-1791, olu tshintsho lugcina isiseko esingundoqo somthetho wamaNgesi oqhelekileyo kwaye lubonakalisa ukuzimisela kwabaseki bokhuseleko lokukhusela abemi ekuphathweni yinkundla egwebayo kwaye luqinisekisa ukuba abantu abaqhelekileyo banendima engqalileyo ekulawuleni okusesikweni. Ngoxa besoloko begqunywa ngummeli wabo wesigebenga, iSihlazi seSithandathu, uLawulo lweSihlalo sihlala singundo esingundoqo kurhulumente nakwigunya loluntu kwibala loluntu.

Imvelaphi Nendlela Echanabeke Ngayo Embalini

Umthetho Oqhelekileyo WesiNgesi Namava Amathanga

Ilungelo lokuchophela ityala letyala letyala lemilo yetyala labemi baseMerika linemvelaphi enzulu kwisithethe esisemthethweni saseNgilani, esibuyela emva kwisiqinisekiso sikaMagna Carta somgwebo soontanga bakhe. Ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe, iinkundla zamaNgesi zazisoloko zisebenzisa iijaji kwiimbambano zamakhaya ezibandakanya impahla, izivumelwano, kunye nee-torts. Abaququzeleli baseMerika babelixabisa eli lungelo kwaye belijonga njengesikhuselo sokulwa kwegunya lobukhosi elingekho mthethweni. Xa amagosa aseBritane anyanzela ukuba imithetho yezorhwebo engekho semthethweni kunye neenkundla zejaji zetyala eziseburhulumenteni zingabikho, ingqumbo yanda. ISindululo se-Impmpli sathi yathetha ngokungqalileyo ukudishwa kwetyala ngomnye wetyala loKumkani uGeorge III. Oku kuthethwa ngembali kwenza ukugcinwa kwetyala lomgwebiso-o-ontaxtiom likarhulumente ongongongongongongongongongongo karhulumente omtsha.

Indibano yomGaqo-siseko kunye neemfuno zoluhlu lokulwa ne-Federalist

UMgaqo-siseko wokuqala ocetyiweyo ngowe-1787 awuqulathanga lukhuselo olucacileyo kumatyala abachopheli-mthetho. Abachasi bokuchasa iAnti-Federalists .* bagxininisa koku kushiywe, bephikisa ukuba ijaji enamandla yesizwe isenokuzidinisa iinkqubo zenkundla yenkundla yorhulumente ize isuse imvume elungileyo. Ngokwamnketho, iKhomishini yokuqala yacebisa uthotho lweziphelo, kuquka oko kuya kuba yiyo iDemente. Ingxoxo yomgangatho womgangatho we-Anti ye-FLT. Impikiswano egxininisa igxininise ukuba ilungelo lokuchophela kwiimeko zabemi yayisele imiselwe kakuhle ekusebenzeni kwetyala lasekuhlaleni kwaye imele igcinwe ngokomgaqo-mthetho osemthethweni.

Ukwenziwa kwemijelo ngowe - 1791

Indibano yokudityaniswa kweminxeba yaseVirginia yayinempembelelo ngokukhethekileyo, ifuna ukuba abachopheli-tyala bagunyaziswe. NgoDisemba 1791, inani elifunekayo lamazwe lagunyazisa iBhili yamaLungelo, yaye iSinyuselo seSebende seSigqibo saba yinxalenye yomGaqo-siseko. Amagama aso abonisa ukulalanisa: ngoxa inguquko isebenza kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, ishiya iinkqubo ezichanekileyo `ezifana nobukhulu bejaji-ukungalinganiswa nokungaquki kwetyala) zimiselwa yiBhunga leenkundla kunye neenkundla ezikwisithethe somthetho.

Amalungiselelo Okubhala Namalungiselelo

“ Kwisuti zomthetho oqhelekileyo, apho ixabiso lempikiswano liza kugqitha kwiidola ezingama-20, ilungelo lokuchophela amatyala liza kugcinwa, kwaye akukho sizathu siqukunjelwa ngabachopheli-tyala, ngapha koko kuza kuphinda kuhlolwa nakweyiphi na iNkundla yaseUnited States, kunokuba kungokwemithetho yomthetho oqhelekileyo.”

Umahluko ‘ Womthetho WeCommon”

Embindini kwisigqibo se-application libinzana elithi “Iziqinisekiso kumthetho oqhelekileyo.” Oku kubhekisela kumatyala okuba ngokwembali aye avalwa kwiinkundla zomthetho wamaNgesi ``ichasa ngokuchaneyo nemali echaphazelekayo/ngokuchasana nempahla ekwimali echaswe ngabagwebi ngokulinganayo, eviweyo, eviwe ngabagwebi ngaphandle kwemiqathango kwaye echaswe yimiyalelo, ukwenza okuthile, okanye amanye amayeza angengowayo. Namhlanje, iinkundla zephondo zidibanise umthetho kunye neenkqubo ezigqwethekileyo, kodwa imicimbi isaqhubeka. Ukuba ityala lifuna uncedo olupheleleyo olusemthethweni (imali), uLawulo lweNguqulo lweNtlanga oluqhelekileyo lusebenza. Ukuba lufuna uncedo olufanelekileyo (um. umyalelo, umyalelo), akukho mbutho wasekunene kwinkundla egwebayo. Iinkundla ezininzi zisebenzisa uvavanyo lwemiciso lwendlela yokulungisa, imibandela efuna

UMda Ongama - R220 Nobusela Bawo

Utshintsho lumisela umlinganiselo ophantsi kwimpikiswano yama-20,00,a yemali enexabiso elikhulu ngo-1791 kodwa encinane namhlanje. Ingqungquthela ayikhange ilihlaziywe eli nani, kodwa imimiselo karhulumente ngoku ibeka ubuncinane obuphezulu kakhulu bolawulo (umz., i-$75,000 yolawulo lwahlukeneyo). Njengombandela osebenzayo, umlinganiselo wama-$2020 (iimali e-R120) awufane ucacingwe; iinkundla zelizwe ziwutolika nje ukuba kufuneke impikiswano yokwenene kumlinganiselo ongekhoyo. Noko ke, igalelo lihlala lingumbandela obalulekileyo wembali oye wabangela impikiswano engokokuba namandla eBhungani lokulungisa umnyango.

Ukulondolozwa, Akuyiyo Indalo

Ulwimi lwe-amentement ." luza kugcinwa"=lucacisa ukuba ilungelo alidalwanga ngokutsha. Endaweni yoko, umGaqo-siseko ukhusela ukuchotshelwa kwetyala njengoko kwakunjalo kumthetho oqhelekileyo ngo1791. Oku kufundwa kwantlandlolo kuthetha ukuba iinkundla zephondo kufuneka zijonge kuqheliselo lwembali lwesiNgesi xa zigqiba ukuba uhlobo oluthile lwetyala luyagcinwa ngabagwebi. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqonda ukuba ukupheliswa kwetyala kukwalela ummiselo wejaji igunya lokulawula iimfuno zento ezifunyenwe ngabachopheli-jaji; ngoko ke, ijaji yorhulumente ayinakunikela ukuvavanywa okutsha kwiimeko ngaphandle kokuba phantsi komthetho oqhelekileyo.

Umlinganiselo Wohlaziyo Lwesixhenxe

Amatyala Afanelekele Ukuvavanywa Kwamatyala KaJury

IsiHlaliso seSebethi sisebenza kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni equka:

  • [[UMTL: 0] Impikiswano – izibhengezo zokwaphula isivumelwano esifuna umonakalo wemali.
  • Izenzo ze- ezithe zasetyenziswa – umonakalo wobuqu, ukunyelisa, ukungakhathali, kunye nemveliso yetyala.
  • [[UMTL:0] Impikiswano ezi- – ukumeneka, ukuguqula, kunye nezenzo zesihloko somsebenzi ezizolileyo (xa isiqabu esisemthethweni sifunwa).
  • Intengo ye-Sta sholor i-imithetho emininzi kazwelonke, enjengemithetho elwa nocalulo-calulo kunye noqiniso lwetyala, inika ilungelo elisesikweni kwityala labachopheli-tyala elikwafuneka kuMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weSebelelo.

Noko ke, ulungiso aluqinisekisi ukuba abachopheli-mthetho abanokugqibelela ngokupheleleyo kwiimeko ezilinganayo, njengoqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, okanye ukwenza isivumelwano esithile. Kwakhona, iisuti ezichasene norhulumente wesizwe phantsi koMthetho we-Federal Tort zizanywa kumgwebi, hayi umgwebi, kuba loo matyala “awamkelekanga kumthetho oqhelekileyo” njengoko kuqondwa ngokwembali.

Ityala Elilinganayo Nomahluko

Ukugqiba ukuba ityala lisemthethweni okanye liyalingana kusentsomini. Iinkundla zisebenzisa “uvavanyo olungokwembali” ngokubuza ukuba ityala beliya kuziswa kwinkundla yomthetho kusini na ngo1791. i-Markman v. Westview Institutions, Inc. [1996], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa olu vavanyo ukuqinisekisa ukuba ityala liyinyani kwaye yathi ukwakhiwa ngumthetho womgwebi. Okunye ukungeyo kwale mihla kubandakanya:

  • Iziphumo ze-Bankiptation – iziphumo ezingundoqo aziyonto iphambili.
  • Isivumelwano solawulo – amatyala amaninzi amaziko awanikezeli kumaqumrhu ejaji, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikuxhasile oku logama nje ityala libandakanya “ilungelo likawonke-wonke."
  • Iinkundla ezizibhengezo ezincinci [ – iimeko zingadala amacandelo amancinane afunayo ngaphandle kwemiqathango yejaji.

Ezi zithintelo zisoloko zibekwa phantsi kuba amaqela afuna ukuphepha inkundla yokuchophela amatyala asenokuzama ukulungiselela izimvo zawo njengamalungelo kawonke - wonke.

IiNkundla zeSizwe

Ngokucacileyo, uHlomelo lweSebethi aluzange “lufakwe” ngokuchasene namatyala ngoMphengululo weshumi elinesine. Oku kuthetha ukuba iinkundla zephondo azinyanzelekanga ngokusemthethweni ukulungiselela iinkundla zejaji zamakhaya phantsi kwemigangatho efanayo. Umgaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo yephondo ngalinye imisela ilungelo enkundleni karhulumente. Amanye amagunya aqinisekisa ukuvavanywa kwetyala lejaji kwanaxa kusenziwa amatyala amancinane, ngoxa amanye emisela ityala kwiimeko ezithile. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ivume ukudlulisela iNkuhlazimlazelo yeJaji, iqiqal ’ ukuba ilungelo elilelo aliyo limele ligqibelele imvume yenkululeko yaseMelika. Njengesiphumo, ityala lenkundla yetyala lisenokungabi nako ukugweba kwityala elifanelekileyo kwanokuba linjalo kwinkundla yenkundla yorhulumente iya kufuna ukuba kube linye.

Inkqubo Yokuvavanya IJury

Ukhetho

Inkqubo yokukhetha abachopheli-tyala abangakhethiyo, abaziwa ngokuba batshatyalaliswe, ivumela abagwebi namagqwetha ukuba babuze abanokuchophela ityala, ulwazi ngetyala, namandla okusebenza. Injongo kukuhlanganisa iqela elinokugqiba izibakala ngokufanelekileyo. Icala ngalinye lisenokusebenzisa imingeni (ukungaquququzeleli kweejaji ngaphandle kwesizathu) ngamanani alinganiselweyo, kunye nocelomngeni lwesizathu (esingathintelwanga, kodwa kufuneka ligwetyelwe). Iinkundla kufuneka ziqinisekise ukuba iqumrhu labacholi-jaji limele icandelo elinqamlezileyo loluntu, nangona iNkundla Ephakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba imfuneko esesikweni esi-6 ye-Gawulayo-eCastment isebenza kuphela kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho; ii-jubhini zinokuthintelwa kwimibango ezingaphezulu.

Indima KaJury: Ukufumana Inyaniso Nomonakalo

Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, abachopheli-tyala bamisela ityala lenyaniso, bavavanya ityala. Ijaji iyalela abachopheli-tyala ngomthetho onxulumeneyo ize ijonge iziphumo. Iingxelo eziyinyaniso zejaji zinelungelo lokuthotywa kakhulu; ijaji isenokusibhukuqa isigqibo sabachopheli-mthetho kuphela ukuba ngokucacileyo asixhaswa bubungqina okanye ukuba umonakalo ugqithise kakhulu okanye awufaneleki kangangokuba usothusa isazela. UMthetho weSigwebi uthintela iinkundla zikarhulumente ukuba zingaphinde zigxeke izibakalanise izibakala “ngokuchasene nemithetho eqhelekileyo yetyala”.[1] [20] Ijaji ayinakukwazi ukuthatha indawo nje imbono yakhe okanye eyeyayo kubachophele abachobi.

Ubungakanani Obungaphiliyo Nobunyusi

ISigqibo seSevenment asiphindi ncam isigwebo esidibeneyo okanye ubukhulu obubodwa bejaji. Kwimbali, iijaji zamakhaya kumthetho oqhelekileyo zazisoloko ziquka amalungu alishumi elinambini kwaye zifuna ukungalingani. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhasa imithetho karhulumente evumela izigwebo ezingavumelanga uluntu (umz., ] Apodaca v. Oregon[[FLT]1]]] yayilityala lolwaphulo-mthetho; kwimonke, iNkungasebenzisi mfuneko yokungalinganiyo). Inkundla yesizwe ayikhange isebenzise imfuneko esisiseko yamalungu amathandathu kumalungu alishumi elinesibini ngaphandle kokuba avumelane. Umthetho weProvial Procrencel Relations. Umthetho 48 ufuna ukuba igwebo lwe-ographiant kumalungu amathandathu ngaphandle kokuba amalungu athe abonakalisa imilinganiselo eenzaniso eenzaniso, ukusetyenziswa komthetho oqhelekileyo, ukusetyenziswa komthetho, okusetyenziswa okusetyenziswa okusetyenziswa komthetho okusetyenziswa okuqhelekileyo.

Impembelelo yenkqubo yomthetho waseMerika

Ukupheliswa kwamakhaya nokuphendula

Ijaji zamakhaya zisebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo wokuphendula ityala, ingakumbi kwityala letort kunye nesivumelwano esinxulumene namaqumrhu oshishino kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente. Ngokunika abemi abaqhelekileyo amandla okugqiba amatyala nokumisela umonakalo, amaqumrhu afake amaxabiso oluntu kwinkqubo yomthetho. Uhlolisiso lubonise ukuba iijaji zisoloko zivelisa iziphumo ezinokuthe ngqo nezingaguquguqukiyo kuneemvavanyo zebhedri kwiindawo ezithile, kwaye zinokuba nguvavanyo kwijaji okanye ukonakala. Ilungelo kwimbutho labagwebi abagwebi ukunikela ubungqina kuwonke wonke, obucace qha, obungundoqo bolawulo lwedemokhrasi lwaseMelika.

Ubungqina Bokusebenza Kwamatyheli

Uphando olungomthetho wabemi lucebisa ukuba balandele umthetho kwaye bavavanye ngenyameko, phezu kwazo nje iimbono ezithe ngqo malunga nezigqibo ezingokweemvakalelo okanye ezingenangqiqo. Ufundo lwangowama- 2006 olupapashwe kwi- Dipaul Law Review [ ifumanise ukuba abagwebi bavumelana nezigqibo zejaji kwityala elikhulu. Noko ke, inkxalabo ngokugxothwa kwemiqathango kunye neziphumo ezigqithisileyo zikhokelele kwiinguqu-nkqubo yomthetho, njengemingxibo yelahleko kwilahleko kunye nemilinganiselo ekhutshiweyo. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi- BM [FLT] yaseMntla Merika v. [[FLT][FLT]] 1996] [196]) samisela inkqubo efanelekileyo kwi-pactalback, kodwa i-Genegency ikhusela imodecring.

Ukugxekwa Nokucelwa Kotshintsho

Abahlalutyi bathi izindululo zejaji zamakhaya zingabiza imali eninzi, zifumana ixesha lokusebenza, kwaye aziqiniseki. Ezinye iimeko zorhwebo zintsonkothile kangangokuba abagwebi bazama ukuqonda ubungqina bobuchule. Abanye baphawula ukuba ilungelo lokuvavanya ijaji liyarhoxiswa ngakumbi kukuvalwa kwangaphambi kwe-diptament arbibibit kwizindululo zokulungisa imali. Le ngxaki iquka ii-jumplatezi ezikhethekileyo ze-julls. “i-blueat &T Molibility v. [FLT''' i-'i-'i-Chuququzelo'''''''''' i-'intebon'stiki yoluvo oluqhelekileyo okanye ukuvavanywa kwe-bhedulo lwe-belkthring'i, kodwa nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphina inkcelo yoluvo lomthetho we-jijinga-yokunene kufuneka i-m.

Ukuphakamisa Nocelomngeni Lwale Mihla

Ukuvela Kwezenzo Zokujongwa Kwamazwe Neenkwenkwe Zodidi

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, iziko leenkampani eziPhakamileyo ziye zafaka izibhengezo ezifanelekileyo kwizivumelwano ezisigquma yonke into ukusuka kumakhadi okuthenga ngetyala ukuya kwizivumelwano zemisebenzi. Ezi zicatshulwa zidla ngokulwa nomthetho wodidi kwaye zifuna ukuba kuconjululwe ingxabano yezommeli omnye, ngokunempumelelo ukuphelisa ilungelo lokuchophela ityala lejaji. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhasa kakhulu izindululo ezinjalo phantsi koMthetho we-Federalarbitration Act, iqiqalbate into yokuba ukudityaniswa kungumbandela wesivumelwano kwaye akuyifuni ukuncitshiswa kwemithetho-siseko. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ijonge ukuhlaziswe kokuHlutywa kweCandelo nokuncitshiswa kwe-cola. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka kwiBhunganeencwadi yeeNkuhlela neencwadi zemali, kunye neemali ezininzi eziveliswayo ekumiselweni kwemiqatha yemiqatha yemiqatha yemiqatha.

Ugwebo lolawulo

Imimiselo emininzi yezolawulo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza amaqumrhu olawulo alwahlula-hlulayo ngaphandle kwemiqathango yejaji. Umzekelo, iSocial Security Administration ivakala izibheno, iNkundla yeNkundla yokuKhuselwa Kwezikhundla yezokhuseleko ilawula, kunye nemithetho yezoburhulumente yezomthetho egunyazisa ukugcinwa kwemithetho yokusebenza. INkundla ePhakathi-mandla ibambelele kwelokuba iSigqibo seSebe seSigqibo asisebenzisi xa urhulumente esenza ulawulo olusemthethweni olusemthethweni. Le ndawo isebenza ngokusemthethweni isebenza ulawulo olusemthethweni. Inkundla ebanzi imele ibonise ukuba ityala ityala lisebenza ngokungenalusini. Inkundla imele i-Genegalelo-od cooms.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye neentlanganiso zenyani

Isifo se-COVOVAD-19 esiphenjelelwe ukuvavanywa kwetyala lamakhaya elikwindawo ephakamileyo labachopheli-tyala, eliqhutywa ngevidiyo. Iziphumo zangaphambili zibonisa ukuba iimvavanyo zenyani zinokwenziwa kakuhle, nangona inkxalabo zisekho ngokubhekiselele kwijaji, ubuchule bokuvavanya ukuthembeka, kunye nenkundla enamandla. Ezinye iinkundla ziye zamkela imizekelo edibeneyo. Njengoko inkqubo yobugcisa ihambela phambili, imfuneko ye-Sebenth Demplete Amendmentment yenkundla yejaji “ijalamfa. Ityala liya kufuneka lizinzile. Ityala alithethi nto ngomcinekiso, ngoko ke iinkundla ziya kumele zigqibe enoba iziphumo zomgaqo-mgamgamgamgamgamgamgamgamgamgam.

Isiphelo

ISevenment Amend Amendment ihlala ingukhuseleko olubalulekileyo kubemi abafuna okusesikweni kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni. Imvelaphi yayo yembali yomthetho wesiNgesi kunye nokulwa kwegunya elizimeleyo nezobugcisa kugxininisa ukubaluleka kwayo njengovavanyo lwamandla omthetho naworhulumente. Nangona utshintsho lungaqinisekisi iimvavanyo zejaji kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, impembelelo yayo ichaphazela impucuko yaseMelika esemthethweni kwaye ilolonga ukuphuhliswa kwesigqibo sempikiswano. Kwixesha lokunyuka kwempikiswano, umgaqo ontsonkothile, kunye nokutshintsha kwezobugcisa, ugcino-Demententelo lwetyala le-avajini kubaluleke kakhulu kunanini nanini na. Ukuqonda ityala lalo, imiqathango, kunye neziphelo zangoku ziyimfuneko kuye kuye kwalowo ukwamkela ityala lontanga. Kuba uquququze, ngokubhekela kufunda [FFoct:]