Amalungelo ommangalelwa akwisigqeba somthetho-siseko waseMelika, eqinisekisa ukuba abantu bajongene namandla karhulumente ngezixhobo zobugcisa kunye nezokhuseleko oluphantsi. Entliziyweni kula malungelo kukho i-Ustry Procession Claus, efunyenwe kwiMithendeleko yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine yoLawulo olugqwethekileyo. Lo mgaqo uthintela ukulwa nokunyanzeliswa korhulumente ngokufuna ukuba kubekho okusesikweni, isaziso, nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuviwa. Oku kulandelayo kuhlola kulandele imvelaphi, amalungu, kunye nezicelo zangokutsha ze-CSClaussces, ngokuqwalasela indlela ewakhahlela ngayo amalungelo e-mntluntwini wezomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho.

Imvelaphi nesiseko somGaqo-siseko

Ingcamango yenkqubo efanelekileyo yangaphambi kwenkqubo egunyazisiweyo i-U.S. iqukunjelwe kuMgaqo-siseko we-Magna Carta, isiqinisekiso sokuba “akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe.” ISindululo sesihlanu, sagunyaziswa ngo1791, sagunyaziswa lo mgaqo-siseko:“ Akukho mntu... uza kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye ipropati, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Emva kwemfazwe ye-Kine65, iPramendementation yandisa isinyanzelo esinye kumazwe. Ezi ziqululo zimisela inkqubo edityanileyo: inkqubo efunekayo efunekayo, egunyazisa imigaqo elungileyo phambi kokuhluthwa, kunye nenkqubo ephantsi kwemithetho engundoqo, ekhusela amalungelo esetyenziswa ngurhulumente.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo yobunzulu

Inkqubo efunekayo engokomthetho ifuna ukuba naliphi na inyathelo likarhulumente elihlutha umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla liqalelwe ziinkqubo ezaneleyo. Kwizigwebi, oku kuguqulela kwintsalela yamalungelo enzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuvavanywa ngokusesikweni. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yakholelwa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba “iimfaneleko eziphantsi” ziquka:

  • I-Notice yetyala kunye nemeko yemeko.
  • [[UMTL:0]A ucalulo olulungileyo [[UMTL:1] phambi kwenkundla engondilele nengakhethi buso.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ithuba lokunika ubungqina kunye namangqina achaseneyo ne-examine.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umelo lweLegilel olusebenzayo kwaye, ukuba luyimfuneko, lukhutshelwe.
  • [[UMTL:0]A isigqibo esisekelwe kubungqina nomthetho esinikezelwe ezindlebeni.

Ezi ziqalelo azizizibalwanga; zisetyenziswe kwaye zacocwa kwiimeko ezininzi. Umzekelo, ku Goldberg v. Kelly (1970), iNkundla yabambelela ekubeni abamkeli bentlalo-ntle abajongene nokupheliswa kweengenelo babenelungelo lokuvalwa phambi komenzi wesigqibo sobundilele. Ngelixesha ityala loluntu, ukuqiqa okuvakalayo kumo wolwaphulo-mthetho, ichaza inkqubo efanelekileyo ebhetyebhetyebhetyenekayo kodwa ifuna ukwenzeka.

Icebiso: UGidiyon ukongezelela uWainwright

Mhlawumbi eyona nkqubo ifanelekileyo yokulawula ingumthetho ingu Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). UClarence Gideon, iphengululi elihlwempu, wamangalelwa ngokuqhekeza nokungena kwigumbi lenqanawa eFlorida. Walatha igqwetha kuba umthetho waseFlorida wanikela ngesiluleko setyala elikhulu kuphela, uGidiyon wazikhusela kwaye wagwetywa. Ejele, unika isicelo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, ephikisa ngelithi iSihlalo seSithandathu soMmiselo esifanelekileyo sokucebisa sasibalulekile kwaye sasetyenziswa kumazwe ngenkqubo kaClaus Claus. Inkundla yavuma ngamacala angaphambili kuphela, phezu kwesigqibo sayo sangaphambili [[FLD:] Bretts. v[FT] [12] [192], ingumgaqo wetyala lomthetho wetyala laseMelika, nangona ityunyukelwe kusetyenziswa kumthetho wangaphambili.

Ukuya Kwityala Elikhawulezileyo

IsiHlanulo soHlaziyo seSithandathu siqinisekisa “ukungaphelelwa komdla kunye nokuvavanywa kukawonke-wonke,” ukukhuselwa okuqulethwe kumaphondo ngokudlula kwiSicwangciso soMqathango se-145. Ilungelo lisebenza izilangazelelo ezininzi: ukuthintela ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga, ukuncitshiswa kwexhala kunye nokukrokrela kwabantu okuhambisana nezityholo ezilandelayo, nokuqinisekisa ukuba ubungqina abuphelelwa lixesha. [[FLT: 0] Barker v. Wingo[FLD][:1] [10], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamkela uvavanyo olulungelelekileyo olulinganisiweyo lwezinkalo ezine: ukulibazisela, isizathu sokulibazisa, ukulibazisela ummangalelwa, kunye nekhethe elijongelweyo. Kunyaka omnye uthe phindwano, kodwa umthwalo uhlala ukho ekuboniseni kwezo zinkolelwe ukukholisa ityala. Umthetho ogunyazwe ngumthetho ogunyaziwe ngu-194]

Ukhuseleko Kwingozi Ephindwe kabini

ISinyuso sesihlanu sithi akukho mntu uya “kubekwa phantsi kwetyala elifanayo ukuze abekwe kabini kwingozi yobomi okanye ilungu.” Olu khuselo, lwenziwe lwasebenza kumazwe "Benton v. Maryland, ukhusela ummangalelwa ekumangalelweni ngokwempumelelo okanye kwisigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho olunye. Imivalo yemithetho yetyala iphinde ibekwe emva kokugwetywa, emva kokubhenela (kubhetyelwa ngumXhobeli), kwaye kwiimeko ezilinganiselweyo emva kokumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yomShuphini. Oku kubalulekile, “kuvavanyaza ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho lufuna ukucinezelwa kwelungu elinye icala emva kokugwetywa, [FFON] [FF] [FFF: FT]

Inkqubo ePhakamileyo namaLungelo aPhambili

Ngelixesha inkqubo efunekayo yokuyila ilawula yesenzo sikarhulumente, inkqubo encinci efunekayo ibeke imida yeli thuba into e. Umxholo wemithetho ephazamisa inkululeko engundoqo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ifumanise amalungelo athile “ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe salo hlanga" kangangokuba afanelwe kukukhuselwa ngokukhuselwa. Kwinkqubo elindelekileyo encinci ye-FTBT. i-equat] i-cet systom iss acript sym is arnalown urhulumente wolwaphulo-mthetho okanye ukuphumeza isohlwayo ezithile.

  • ekunene kwimfihlo - ekwamkelekileyo Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) yaza yanda kwi Roe v. Wade [197]) kunye
  • [[NTL:0] ekunene kwingqibelelo yomzimba - imida ichaza ukuphazamisana emzimbeni womntu, njengotyando oluzenzekelayo okanye amayeza anyanzelekileyo (jonga Shashington v. Harper) (1990)).
  • Ekunene kumzali kwaye ukhulise abantwana --ichaphazelekayo kwiimeko ezibandakanya ukupheliswa kwamalungelo omzali okanye ukususwa kwabantwana ekhaya.

Inkqubo engafanelekanga esisiseko ihlala iphikisana, njengoko abahlalutyi bephikisa bethi ilindele ukuphangwa kwetyala. Noko ke, iyanyamezela njengesinyanzelo kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho nekhaka kubantu ngabanye nxamnye nemithetho ecinezelayo — kuquka ezo zinokuthi zinyanzelise ihambo yomntu omdala okanye zithintele ukuzilawula ngendlela ekhubekisayo okusisiseko.

Amatyala Atyhola Amalungelo

Izigqibo eziliqela zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zaguqula indlela amalungelo abamangalelwa amele ajoliswe ngayo ngokusebenzisa i-Status Procession Claus kwizenzo ezithile zamapolisa nezomtshutshisi. La matyala abonisa ukucaciswa okuchaza oko “kusele kudlule” kufunwayo xa kusenziwa uphando lolwaphulo-mthetho kunye neetyala.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): UMthetho WeExcloion

Phambi , ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuphengulula okungekho mthethweni bungasetyenziswa kumatyala karhulumente. Ikhaya likaDollree Map laphelwa ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso esisemthethweni sokunxulumene nokuqhushumbisa; amapolisa afumana izinto ezingcolileyo, awathi wagwetywa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yabanjwa, ibambe ukuba umthetho weSine Solawulo soMphetho-Mdama, "`inqanda ukusetyenziswa okungekho mthethweni ngokungekho mthethweni kokuthatha ubungqina",a kumazwe ukudlula kwiMthendeleko ye-145th Remente Claus. IJalaks Clark yabhala ukuba “imfuneko yokuthembeka kwetyala” ifuna ukuba iinkundla zingangeniselwa kwimithetho echasa umthetho. Isigqibo sesigqibo sokusebenza kwamapolisa, i-offseshort, i-operalse-odmist, i-odmistsss process proctives of Sectial Clation.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Izilumkiso zoku-intshi

Mhlawumbi eyona ngxaki idumileyo yezenzo ezifanelekileyo, imanda v. eArizona yathetha kumoya osisingqino wokuncinwa kwamapolisa. uErneto Miranda, indoda ehlwempuzekileyo negula ngengqondo, yavuma ukuba iqweqwele ekuqweqwediseni nasekudlwenguleni emva kweeyure zokubuza ingaxelelwanga ukuba wayenelungelo lokuhlala ethe cwaka okanye aqhagamshelane negqwetha igqwetha. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba ukuncinwa kwento ekhoyo kuxhomekeke kwimo yesiqhelo; ngoko ke, ilungelo leFind Rementementation nxamnye nokuzimela ngokwayo lifuna ukuba kurhanelwe ukukrokrazwa ngamalungelo abo [[[FLT:] phambi kokuba axelwe ukuba abekwe ngayo] phambi kokuba i-FLT:3] nangavunywe. [2]

Maryland (1963): Ubungqina Bokukhuthuza

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna ukuba abatshutshisi bachaze iziphumo ezifanelekileyo kumangalelwa. Brady v. Maryland, iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ukucinezelwa kobungqina bokudinwa kwezinto eziphathekayo (ukungachazi magama, amaxwebhu, okanye ukuvavanya iziphumo ezifunekayo) ziquka inkqubo efunekayo “apho ubungqina buyinto enokuba yityala okanye isohlwayo.” [[FLT:] BRAdy umthetho oqhubekekayo kubatshutshisi abaxhasi ukuguqula nantoni na enokunceda ukukhusela. Iinkqubo zangoku ziquka ubungqina obungathethi nto, ukwenziwa kobungqina, kunye nokwenzela amangqina. [FLT:] [FLD] [5] [FT] [FLT]

Batson . . Kentucky (1986): Ukuphelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga Kukhetho lukaJury

Ilungelo lokugweba ngokungakhethiyo liba likruqula ukuba abatshutshisi bangayi kusingiswa kuphela ngenxa yohlanga. Batson v. Kentucky[, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukusebenzisa imingeni yokukhulula esekelwe kuhlanga ukubetha ingxengxeza esekelwe kugqatso olulinganayo lwe-Foctal Protect Claus, nayo enyanzelelwa kwinkqubo efunekayo kwiimvavanyo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Inkundla imisele uvavanyo oluthathu: (1) ummangalelwa kufuneka enze ityala localulo lohlanga; (2) umtshutshisi kufuneka anikezele ingcaciso lohlanga lwendlela ye-luvo; (3) igwebo ukuba ngaba ingcaciso ikho. [FLT:][3][3]

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Kwinkqubo Yezobulungisa Yanamhlanje

Imigaqo echazwe kumatyala aphawulekayo esebenza kwizinto ezininzi ezahlukeneyo zezaphuli-mthetho eziphila kwimo yezaphuli-mthetho namhlanje. Amatyala amaninzi awaze abekwe ecaleni; izibongozo ezigunyazisa ukucetyiswa, nokuvalelwa komthetho kuxhaphakile. Inkxalabo ephambili yenkqubo ijoliswe kwiinkqubo ezenzeka kudala ngaphambi kokuba kugwetywe isigqibo.

IPlea Bargaining neWaiver yamalungelo

Ngaphezu kwama-95% eenkolelo zikarhulumente nezigunyaziso zikarhulumente zibangelwa kukucenga kunokuvavanywa. Isicelo esifanelekileyo sinzulu. Isibongozo esinetyala siwachasa ngokunempumelelo onke amalungelo amatyala: ilungelo lokululeka, lokungquzulana, lokungathathi cala. INkundla ePhakamileyo inyanzelisa ukuba izicelo zibe zezokuzithandela, kwaye zibe nengqondo, kodwa ukunyanzeleka ukujamelana nesigwebo eside ukuba ugwebo oluvalelwe etyalani lungacinelanga ukunyanzelela abamangalelwa abamsulwa ukuba bamangalelwe ngetyala, ngokuchasene netyala. [[FLT:] ityala] iyazi ukuba ityala liyisohlwayo. [[FLT] ityala] inguLafler v. uxinzelelo olunamandla, nooknawokusetyenziswayo, uyakwazi ukufikelela kumacala onamandla, kodwa kusoloko kusetyenziswa ugqeqesho olukhawulezayo. [FF.F.FF.2]

Ukufumanisa Ubungqina Obunento yokwenza

Ngaphaya kwe Brady, imithetho yokufukula yale mihla iyahluka-hluka kakhulu ngokolawulo. Imithetho engundoqo ye-Federal of Criminal Procediture ifuna abatshutshisi ukuba bachaze iingxelo zommangalelwa, ezingaphambili, kunye namaxwebhu nezinto zento kwityala, kunye nengcaciso. Amaphondo amaninzi anemiqathango ebanzi ngokufanayo “ifayile yokuvula” yeenkqubo. Noko ke, izibonelelo, imiyalelo ebanzi, kunye nomthamo opheleleyo wobungqina bemivo unokuthi uthintele ukufikelela okunenjongo. Inkqubo ye-"Umthetho i-"Unitsol' i-ARhost iphazamisa ukufikelela okubalulekileyo. Inkqubela i-memo yomthetho inguquququze xa umtshutshisiswe nge-odvolue.

Ukugwetywa Nokungacalucalulwa

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ayipheli ngokuqiniseka. IsiHlaliso seSithandathu sinelungelo lokuya kwinkundla yamatyala . [ISindululo seSithandathu seSindululo sandululwa ngeGqibelo le-14] sathunyelwa kumaphondo. Ngokunjalo, [[FLT:]] UMLLY] V. I-Amamasma [202] isigqibo esibanjelwe ukuba ukuvalelwa kobomi ngaphandle kwe-parroleans [ukuvalds] [ukuvalwa kwe-Gawulayo]. I-New Jersey [[FLT], 2000], ngokunjalo, .] [iimper.[FLT] i-eller v.[[FLT]] [[5:2]] [isigqibo esibanjwe ukuba kuthintelwe ubomi obungangendlela yokugwetyelwa kwe-Rolevel'ekhosi) sisohlwayo sobugqalise imposiso sobugrayo, ingqina esisetyenziswayo sokuhlola ngokutsha, sijonge ukusetyenziswa kobuphindo olufanelekileyo

Iingxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Nakubeni kukho iinkulungwane zokuphuhliswa kwemfundiso, idinga lenkqubo efunekayo lihlala lizaliseka ngokungefezeki. Iingcinezelo zale mihla ``ukuvalelwa entolongweni, ukungoneli kwemali yokukhusela imfazwe, nokutshintsha kwezobugcisa okukhawulezileyo', kuvavanya imida yesiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko.

Ukruthakruthwano Oluninzi Neyantlukwano Yobuhlanga

I-United States ibopha abantu abangaphezu kwe-1,2 lezigidi, umlinganiselo ophindwe kahlanu ukuya kweshumi lawo amanye amazwe ahambele phambili. I-Mlalty Trease ivalelwe phantse kahlanu kumlinganiselo wabemi abamhlophe baseMelika. Ezi zahlukaniso azibangelwa nje kukungalingani kwemilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yokucalucalula; zibonakalisa ucalucalulo olukwiziko lobupolisa, ukunyanzelisa, ukunyanzeleka, ukunyanzeleka, kunye nokugweba okunokuthi kuphazamisa ukukhusela okulinganayo kwenkqubo efunekayo. Inkundla ephakamileyo ivumile iyavuma ukuba ikhethelwa ngokweejaji, ngokukodwa, ihlaze ityala ityala ityala abantu ngokubanziwa, kwaye umlinganiselo opheleleyo wokuthwa kwemiqatha wokusebenza kwetyala ulwaphulo-mthetho ulwaphulo-mthetho owenziwa ngokufanelekileyo kwaye ifuna inkqele.

Ukhuselo olungenaziphene

IGONINI nyaka ngamnye ishiya ixesha elincinane lokuphengulula okanye isicwangciso. Inkundla ePhakamileyo imisele isithintelo esiphezulu sokuqinisekisa uncedo olungaphumeleliyo ( Stickland v. Washington, 1984), ifuna zombini iiprojekthi ezingafanelekanga nezibangela ikhethelo. Ukungaphumeleli kwendlela yokusebenza kwemithetho yekomkhulu kunye nokulungisa okufanelekileyo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nokhuthuzo

Ubugcisa bamanani buzisa izisongelo ezintsha kwinkqubo efunekayo. Ukusetyenziswa kwamapolisa ee-GPS, iimfaniso zeseli, i-algorithm yolwazi oluzenzekelayo, kunye nolwazi lwe-algorithm lobuso lungaphepha iimfuno zesithethe zemvume kunye nesizathu esilindelekileyo. I-Carpaterbent v. I-United States [2017], iNkuNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela ekubeni ukufikelela kweseli-ekhomputha ye-oksi ye-oyile-yodwa, ime isenza ukuphendla kwe-indawo yeSine sokuHlazisa okufuna isiqinisekiso. Isigqibo sixhomekeke kakhulu kwiprojective neprojectives-o altiventietings. Ukungamela ukusetyenziswa kwebhokisi ekunene nokungangeni kobungqina bokusetyenziswa.

Ugcino Lwenkqubo Elindelekileyo Yexesha Elizayo

I-System Processol Claus asikokuzinqumla; kufuna ukuhlala uphaphile kwiinkundla, abamisi-mthetho, kunye nabemi. Amalungelo ommangalelwa omelele njengenkqubo ebanyanzelisayo. Kwixesha lokucela ukucetyiswa, ukuvalelwa kwequmrhu, kunye nokugwetywa kwemithetho-algoric, ucelomngeni kukuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo ihlala inentsingiselo. Iziguquli eziliqela zinganceda:

  • Ingxowa-mali epheleleyo yeenkqubo zokuzikhusela ezikwizingelelo ukunciphisa imithwalo yetyala nokuqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa ngamnye ufumana umelo olusebenzayo.
  • Imithetho yokufumana eyomelezwayo kwaye ibeka izivumo kwi Brady ukwaphula.
  • CPF ukubonakala ngaphaya kwemithetho-siseko yemithetho-siseko okusetyenziswa kubulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho, kuquka ukugunyaziswa komqathango kunye nokufikelela kwabakhonkxwa ukukhuphisana nokuchana kwabo.
  • ukwandiswa kosetyenziso lweenkqubo zokuzihlaziya kunye nezinye iinkundla ukucutha ukuxhomekeka ekubotshweni kwityala lomgangatho ophantsi.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukulungiselela ukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke olunentsebenziswano ukuzalisekisa ugqibo lwangaphambili lomzekelo kunye nemithetho elandelwayo yobungqina ehlonela inkqubo efunekayo.

Ekugqibeleni, i-System Processol Claus iquka ukuzibophelela kwisidima somntu ngamnye nakumthetho. Ayiqinisekisi ukuba umntu onetyala uyamgweba, kodwa igxininisa ukuba ityala limele lingqineke ngeenkqubo ezibonisa intlonelo ngomntu omangalelweyo, hayi ubungozi obumele buphethwe. Njengoko inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika iqhubeka iguquka, loo mbopheleleko ihlala ibalulekile namhlanje njengoko kwakunjalo kwiinkulungwane ngaphambi kokuba umGaqo-siseko ubhalwe.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwembali kunye nokusetyenziswa kwenkqubo efunekayo, bona iCornell Information Information ye-, umbhalo opheleleyo we Geton v. [[FLT:] Isigqibo somsinga]. [Ugcino-lwazi] [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] [4] ku [FLT] [FLT:] [5],] kunye nombambo ongalunganga [[FLT:] [FLT]]