Imvelaphi Nenjongo Yolawulo lukaRhulumente

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzimela ngokwasemthethweni wesizwe yenye yeyona migaqo ehlala ihleli neneziphumo ezisemthethweni eMelika. Isekelwe kumthetho weBhunga lamaNgesi oqhelekileyo .Apho ukumkani engenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe, kwaye le mfundiso yasekwa eUnited States kwaye yafakwa kwiSindululo seshumi elinesithoba. Ulwimi oluchanileyo lolungiso-mthetho lwaseUnited States aluyi kuthathwa njengolufanele ukunyuselwa nasiphi na isikrwelo somthetho okanye ukuqululo, iqaliswe okanye imangalelwe nxamnye nomnye we-United States yi-Vanizenties yelities yelinye iLizwe, okanye yiMithetho okanye yiMitheli okanye yiMiba yalo naliphi na ilizwe laMazwe asemzini.”

Ngeli xesha umbhalo ubonakala umxinwa, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikutolika ngokubanzi ithetha ukuba ngokuqhelekileyo amatyala awakhuselekanga ekumangalweni kwabucala kwinkundla yephondo ngaphandle kokuba iNkundla igunyazise ukuba i-Louisia ikhuseleke okanye imo ngokwayo iwulahle. Lo mgaqo usebenza kungekuphela xa umchasi evela kwelinye ilizwe kodwa kwanaxa ummangali-mthetho egweba imeko yawo qha, `isikhundla seNkundla yenziwa ngokucacileyo kwi- v. Louisiana [1890]. Ulungiso luba luba mbindi: ukulondoloza ugcino lwemiqathango yezomthetho evela kwinkundla yorhulumente yorhulumente kwaye uthobela ulawulo lwesidima nolawulo lorhulumente kurhulumente.

Noko ke, ukutyhubela amashumi eminyaka, iinkundla ziye zayikhupha into ebalulekileyo, ingakumbi xa kuthethwa ngemithetho yamalungelo abantu. Ukuqonda apho ukuthintelwa kwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha kungena khona nokuqalisa kwelungelo lomntu lokunceda kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na obandakanyekileyo ekunyanzelweni kwamalungelo abantu, ukusuka kwiiligator ukuya kwimithetho.

Indlela Amalungelo aBantu Alawulwa Ngayo

Ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abemi kuxhomekeke kwimimiselo karhulumente enjengowama-42 U.S.C. 1983, iSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo oMsebenzi ka-1964, amaMelika anoMthetho (ADA) okhubazekayo, kunye noluHlukulela-mthetho lweNkathi yeNkathi eSebela umsebenzi (ADEA). Ngamnye kule mimiselo unxibelelana ngokwahlukileyo nokhuseleko lolawulo lukarhulumente.

Icandelo 1983

42.C. .1998 inikela unobangela wesenzo nxamnye naye nawuphi na umntu, phantsi kombala womthetho karhulumente, ohlutha omnye wamalungelo orhulumente okanye owesizwe. Noko ke, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba urhulumente ngokwawo akango “pereson” phantsi konyaka ka-1998. Oku kuthetha ukuba nangona ummangali-mthetho engowasemthethweni enokuthi agunyazise amagosa agunyaze ukutshaya okanye ukukhulula umlomo, akanakumangalela urhulumente ngqo ngenxa yelahleko yemali phantsi konyaka ka-19639. Umsebenzi weCrective awukho phantsi kwentelekelelo, ngenxa yokungakhangeli kwetyala, i-omatilo-mali ayikhange ifumaneke kulawulo.

ISihloko se-VII noKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus

Isihloko se-VII siyalwalela ucalucalulo lwemisebenzi olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, isini, kunye nemvelaphi yesizwe. Abaqeshi belizwe baphantsi kweSihloko se VII, kodwa ngenxa yokuba iBhunga ligunyaziswe ngokusemthethweni ukukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho we 144th. Futzrickbrick v.[[[FLT][12]][197]], iNkunyenziswa-1979] iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkulwayo xa inyanzela isiqinisekiso soMphetho we 1450th. Oku kuvule ucango lwezigwebo nxamnye nabaqeshwa abangaphantsi kwe-I 14, uGawulayo-mthetho-Onkene. Ngoko ke, umlinganiselo we-broumthetho othenjiweyo umele uhlale uthelwe yi-Bhotho. [FLT][FFlatten] [127] [127]], i-G.Geaventions Coueadetic

IADA NeADEA: Ukunqunyulwa Okunemiqathango

I-American enesiBhaka-nka seNkundla ecacileyo ejongene nenjongo yeBhunga lokukhusela iBhunga. Noko ke, i-Board of Trust of the University of Alabamav. Garrett (2001], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibekelwe umda ukuba ukukhubazeka, ukuphatha iSihlomelo I se-ADA (impatho) ngaphezu kweCandelo lesi-5 ngenxa yokuba ingxelo yomthetho yabonisa ulwahlulo olubanzi olukhoyo kubantu abakhubazekileyo. Ngokwahlukileyo, iSihlomelo II se-ADA (inkonzo zikawonke) siye saxhaswa njengesiqinisekiso esisemthethweni sokuzinye ityala. Ngokunjalo, i-ADEBE yabe yabethwaliswa yi-froggg. [2]

Izigqibo Eziyintloko Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Zichaza Imida

Imimiselo emininzi ephawulekayo iye yaguqula imida yale mihla yokhuseleko lobuzwilakhe kumthetho olawula amalungelo abantu. Ukuqonda la matyala kubaluleke kakhulu kubameli bamalungelo abantu.

[[UMTLL:0] Exte Young (08)

Esi sigqibo sabangela eyona nto ibalulekileyo ekuthintelweni kwemithetho elawulayo. Inkundla yavumela isuti echasene negosa likarhulumente waseMinnesota ukuba iwise umthetho karhulumente oyalela ukuba imithetho yesizwe yaphule imimiselo yoololiwe. Le ngxelo, njengoko ichazwe yiNkundla, yayikukuba igosa elisebenza ngokungekho mthethweni lihluliwe isikhundla salo esisemthethweni kwaye lisenokugwetywa njengelungu ngalinye. Oku kuhlala kusisithuthi sesithuthi sendlela esinzima sokungathobelwa kwemithetho nemigaqo karhulumente. Noko ke, alivumeli ukuba lihlawulwe umqeshi wegosa-ofisi.

[[FLT: 0] USiminole Frive of Florida v. Florida (1996)

Ityala elibandakanya i-Indiya Gaminoligation Tribun, iNkundla yathi iNkundla ayinako ukumisela ukhuseleko lwesizwe phantsi kweGatya I, njengeCommerce Claus okanye iBankructcy Clause. Ityala elibandakanya uMthetho we-Indiyan Gammigatation, lowo uphendulweyo, lombuso othe waphikiswayo akanakuwuthoba phantsi kweFlorida ukuze ufaneleke. Le nkundla yavumelana ukuba, inkqube, ngaphezulu kwe-'ibhumbululo-mthetho [[FOLT] [2] i-Pennsylvianiaiaia nj v. Umthetho we-ADH.[FLT] [19989] kunye nowiso wiso-othe-gosa-mthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-onke) u-AD.

[[UMTL: 0] Alden v. Maine (1999)

Ityala elibandakanya ukukhuselwa kolawulo oluphezulu kwintenga yetyala, libambe ukuba umgaqo womgaqo-siseko wemiqathango ye-odonga ye-odonga ye-athom stats yokhuseleko lwamatyala ngokuchasene norhulumente walo ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uvume okanye iKhomishini i-brofasite phantsi kwecandelo 5. Ityala elibandakanya iimali ezithe zanyuswa ngobuninzi phantsi kweMigangatho-mthetho we-Moir Labor. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba nokuba urhulumente uvume ukufanelana neenkundla zakhe jikelele, igcina ukhuseleko kwizinto zikarhulumente ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga-Rhulumente ngokufanelekileyo. Oku kuthetha ukuba amalungelo amakhaya abekwe ngokufanelekileyo akwiCandelo angenawo amacala asemthethweni kwaye ityala; umgangatho wokuzikhusela ulandela urhulumente nokuba kusini nakwiinkundla zenkundla zenkundla.

FATPARIC v. Bitzer (1976)

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, eli tyala lingqina ukuba iBhunga lisenokukhusela ukuhlakulelwa kwelungu xa libekwa phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda we-14. Isigqibo esigunyazisa isakhiwo sangoku: Inqaku le-Ibrogration alikho emva kokuba USELELT BOTY], kodwa Icandelo 5 lokukhutshwa komphezulu lihleli liphilile, linyanzelwa kukuhlolisiswa.

Izicelo ezisebenzisekayo zamalungelo oluntu

Sisaya Kufumana Ukukhululeka

Ngaphandle kwemiqobo, abantu ngabanye banokufumana isiqabu esinentsingiselo. Izabelo ezichasene nokungaphulwa komgaqo-siseko okuqhubekayo `njengezomthetho-siseko ongafanelekanga, iimeko zentolongo, okanye unikezelo olungelulo olufanelekileyo kwingenelo.) Uhlala ephila phantsi expate Young. Actney zisoloko zisebenzisa le ndlela ukunqanda umgaqo woMphetho wokuqala, i-STARMCIECLE, okanye i-Actal Provice Classiade. Kodwa, isivalo silinganiselwe ekukhangeleni phambili isiphumlisi: akukho lahleko yengozi edlulileyo.

Umonakalo Usaqhubeka Unzima Ukuwufumana

Ukungakwazi ukumangalela imbuyekezo yemali nxamnye nelizwe ngokwalo ngumsantsa omkhulu. Amaxhoba okwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu asenokulahlekelwa yimivuzo, iindleko zezonyango, okanye iimvakalelo kodwa angakwazi ukuphinda afumane ilahleko kubuncwane bemali belizwano. Kwezinye iimeko, asenokufuna ilahleko kumagosa asebenza ngokwawo ngokwawo, kodwa loo magosa asoloko ekhuselwa kukukhusela okufanelekileyo. Ukudityaniswa kokhuseleko lobuzwilakhe kunye nokuzikhusela komzimba kubangela umqobo wokuphendula. Abaxhasi botshintsho baye bacebisa ukuba athethe ukuba urhulumente umele ukuba abe ngumntu okanye adlulise umthetho obangela ukuba uthintele ukhuseleko lomntu ngokwemeko yokufumana imali karhulumente.

Izwe Waiver kunye neSivumelwano

Urhulumente angaluphelisa ngokuzithandela ukhuselo lwawo lobungangamsha. Ngokunjalo, amaphondo amaninzi kufuneka azenzele “izenzo zawo zokuzithethelela ngokungekho mthethweni” kwaye athathwe ngokungqongqo. Umzekelo, urhulumente owamkela imali yeMedicaid ngokweenkqubo ezithile zolawulo, kodwa angayisebenzisi imigaqo yokhuseleko yolwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa asenokungayandiseli kwizenzo zokonzakalisa. Ngokufanayo, amaphondo amaninzi aye azenzela izenzo zawo zokuzivumela ezonakeleyo iisuti, kodwa ezi zinto zisoloko zifaka iimbambo okanye zisusa ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu ngempazamo. I-Attorney kufuneka ahlolisise ngenyameko isicwangciso somthetho ngasinye somthetho kunye nawo nawuphi na amalungiselelo asebenzayo.

Isuti Echasene NooMasipala

Okubalulekileyo, ukukhusela ukukhusela ukuma kolawulo akunakwabela oorhulumente basekuhlaleni. OoMasipala, amaqumrhu, namanye amaqela ezobupolitika athathwa njenga “bantu” phantsi ko1998 yaye anokugwetywa ngenxa yoncedo oluthe lwarhoxiswayo kunye nomonakalo wemali. Oku kwenza indlela ebalulekileyo yamasebe amapolisa obulali, izikolo zikawonke-wonke-wonke, okanye amaqumrhu esixeko. Noko ke, ityala liququzelelwa kuphela xa inkqubo okanye isiko sikamasipala sibangele ukwaphulwa, njengoko kumiselwe [[FLT: 0].Monell. Isebe leeNkonzo zezentlalo-ntle [10].[10]

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nocelomngeni Oluyisombululo

Kule minyaka ilishumi idluleyo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaphendula imibuzo emininzi ebalulekileyo echaphazela ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu.

Imfihlo Yama - elektroniki Namagosa Karhulumente

Jores v. Madrid [2021], iNkundla yandisa ingcaciso yokuxhuzula kweNyene yokuLandliswa kodwa ayithethanga ngqo ngokhuseleko lobungangamsha. Noko ke, iimeko ezibandakanya ukungalawuleki kwamapolisa ziyaqhubeka zivavanya imida. Umzekelo, xa igosa likarhulumente liphula ilungelo elimiselwe ngokucacileyo, igosa elingumchasi lisenokugweba umgangatho walo wobuqu, kodwa urhulumente ngokwakhe uhlala engonamajoni okhuselekileyo. Oku kuthetha ukuba isigwebo nxamnye namagosa ngokobuqu okanye ngemeko xa kusenziwa ngegunya, kodwa ukufezekiswa kuxhomekeke kwisigqibo kumele kuxhomekeke kwisigqibo kwaye kuxhomekeke ngokubanzi.

Izindlu zikawonke-wonke kunye neADA

Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia (2021], iNkundla yagqiba ekubeni kukhululwe kunqulo ngokunyanyekelwa kodwa kwakhona ayikhange ibhekise ngqo kwisogobo sokuzikhusela. Noko ke, eli tyala labalaselisa ingxingo eziqhubekayo phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente kunye namalungelo abantu. Iinkundla ezininzi ezisezantsi ziyaqhubeka zihlula ngokwahlula enoba iimfuno ezithile phantsi kweSihlomelo II se-ADA(ezinokufikelela kwiinkundla zenkundla, ukuvota, okanye ezothutho lukawonke-(8) zifaka ityala lokhuseleko lokhuseleko loburhulumente. Inkundla isithi isiHloko II siphendukulwa kwegunyazi.

Imigudu Yombutho Yokubuyisela Ukuzinyusela

Amatyala aliqela avezwe kwiBhunga ukudlula [[FLT:] u-Seminole Tribe kunye Alden[ ngokuqinisekisa urhulumente ukuba ungenelelo kwiinkqubo ze-octives. I-rustrate yalo yonke i-Act kunye ne-[FLT] i-CIVIL] Act e-2023 icebisa ukucacisa ukuba ukufumana imali kumele kuvumelane netyala le nkundla yezomthetho yezomthetho-ophula umthetho phantsi kwemfundiso ka-Claus, ezifuna ukuba naziphi naziphi na iimeko ezinxulumene nzala ezinxulumene nenkcubeko yombutho ye-ognognone.

Iindlela Eziphambili Zokuxhasa Amalungelo Abemi

Xa bejonga ummandla ontsonkothileyo, oogqirha kufuneka basebenzise iindlela ezifanelekileyo zokusebenzisa ukhuseleko lolawulo.

Sebenzisa Umntwana Omncinane Okhethekileyo Ngogonyamelo

Xa uthetha ngokuchasana nokungathobeli okanye okusongelayo, ukucela umyalelo ngokuchasene negosa elifanelekileyo lelizwe kudla ngokuba yeyona ndlela ikhawulezayo yokuhlangula. Oku kusebenza kuphela kuncedo olulindelekileyo kodwa kusenokusetyenziselwa ukucel ’ umngeni iinkqubo zenkqubo, ezifana neemeko zentolongo ezingamiselwanga okanye iinkqubo zokukhulula abantu ngolwaphulo-mthetho.

Igalelo kwicandelo 5 Umthetho

Isenzo sombutho esidibanisa imithetho yamalungelo abantu ngokucace ngakumbi kumthetho onyanzelisa ukuhlaziywa koMthetho weSimi se-14 wokuLandliswa kweMpatho-mda singaqinisa ukunyuswa. Abameli kufuneka banyanzele ukufunyanwa kwengxelo yowiso-mthetho echaza iinkcukacha zocalulo olusasazekileyo lwesizwe ukudibana nomgangatho wokulungelelanisa. Okukhona ingxelo ecacileyo, okukhona iNkundla iyakuxhasa ukuhlaziywa.

Amanyathelo Omthetho KaRhulumente

Umbuso ngamnye uvumela uhlobo oluthile lwesuti ngokuchasene nolwawo. Izenzo zetort, iziphumo ezichaseneyo, kunye nezenzo zomgaqo-siseko zokusilela zinganika isicombululo xa umthetho wengingqi ungasichazi. Ii-Attorney kufuneka ziphande ukuba urhulumente wazo ukhuselekile kusini na kwiindidi ezithile zamalungelo abantu. Amanye amazwe, njengeKhalifoniya ne New York, anemimiselo evumela ukonakalisa okuninzi.

Ulungelelaniswe nabaKhuseli bakaMasipala

Apho ummangalelwa athi uchasene norhulumente kunye nequmrhu likamasipala, esukela ummangalelwa kamasipala phantsi konyaka ka1986 angakhupha umonakalo ngaphandle komqobo wokuzikhusela kwindalo. Ityala likaMasipala phantsi lifuna ubungqina bomgaqo-nkqubo okanye isiko, kodwa amatyala aphumelelayo anokukhokelela kwiinkqubo zotshintsho nembuyekezo kumaxhoba.

Isiphelo: Ukulungelelanisa ulongamo nokuphendula

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe asingomqobo opheleleyo ekunyanzelweni kwamalungelo abantu, kodwa ibeka imida ecacileyo yokuba abalawuli namagqwetha kufuneka basebenzise iliso. Ikhono lokumangalela amagosa karhulumente ngenxa yoncedo olungenazintlawulo linikela uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwihambo engafanelekanga, ukanti ukungakwazi ukubuyisa umonakalo ngqo kurhulumente kusemsantsa obalulekileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka icoca imfundiso, yaye igcina amandla okukhusela ukhuseleko phantsi kwe-1459th Remitementment, ejongelwe kukuhlola imigaqo esemthethweni. Ukungawafumani amalungelo oluntu ukuba anyanzeliswe ngokupheleleyo, inkqubo engokwasemthethweni kufuneka ihlasele ingqinela imibandela engoko kuzinzo olusemthethweni lwemeko nelwongamele iqinisekise ukuba amaxhoba ocalucalucalulo nokuxhatshazwayo anokusetyenziswa kakubi kolawulo oluneyo lunento eyaneyo. Ukuqonda imiqatha enyathelo lokuqala lokuzinziwayo imele igqibe inyathelo lokuqala lokuqala lokuvala asekhohlo.