Imvelaphi Nenkqubo Yendaleko KaMongami Karhulumente

Imfundiso esemthethweni ekhusela oorhulumente ekumangalelweni, ngaphandle kokuba bavume ukumangalelwa, ivela kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi apho umlawuli engenako ukuphikiswa kwiinkundla ezingokwasemthethweni. Lo mgaqo wathunyelwa kwijuliprudence yaseMelika ngoMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesithoba ukuya kuMgaqo-siseko we-U.S., othintela iinkundla zikarhulumente ukuba zivale iisuti zikarhulumente kwelinye ilizwe okanye ilizwe lasemzini. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, imfundiso eyandisiweyo ukukhusela oorhulumente kwiinkundla zabo, ingekho ngumxhasi ocacileyo.

Noko ke, iinkcazelo zale mihla ziye zayichaza ngendlela ephawulekayo. EUnited States, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathi ukukhusela ulawulo akusebenzi xa urhulumente ephula umthetho wesizwe phantsi koMthetho we-14th Amendment, okanye xa iBhunga lichaza ngokucacileyo ukuthintelwa kwemiqathango ngokusetyenziswa komthetho owiswe phantsi kwamandla alo okusebenza. Ngokufanayo, amazwe amaninzi aye amisela izicelo zokuzibanga ukuba ukukhusela ukuthintelwa kohlobo oluthile lokungakhathali − inxalenye yezonobumba idla ngokuvela ngemiqathango yezonombo ezikuchanaba kwilahleko kunye nemiqobo ekhoyo.

Ingcamango yokhuseleko lukarhulumente iqiniswa kwizivumelwano ezifana nesivumelwano seZizwe ezimanyeneyo kwi-Juristional Immunical Imental Imental of State kunye nempahla Yazo, emkela ingcamango engqongqo: amaziko akhuselekile kwizenzo eziphezulu (juremperii) kodwa hayi kwimisebenzi yezorhwebo (juregesis).

Ukusebenza Kwabantu Kumonakalo Wemeko - bume: Isiseko Nezixhobo Zokusebenzisa Umatshini

Uxanduva lwamakhaya kumthetho wemekobume luwabeke ngokusemthethweni amaqela abekek ’ ityala ekonakaleni imeko-bume okanye kubantu nakwizinto zawo ngongcoliso, ngokutshatyalaliswa kwendawo yokuhlala okanye ngomonakalo wendalo. Iinkqubo eziphambili ziquka i-torts (ityala, ityala, ukungakhathali) kunye nolawulo lwetyala lwentelekelelo-mvisiswano olufana neComprehensive Environmental Resotion, Compensation, kunye noMthetho weLiability (CERCLA) eUnited States, okanye i-Lituration Literation Direct kwi-European Union.

Phantsi kolawulo olungqongqo, iqela linokubekwa ityala kungakhathaliseki ukuba imisebenzi yalo ibangele umonakalo kwimeko-bume. Umzekelo, abasebenzi beendawo zenkunkuma ezinobungozi phantsi kwe-CERCLA bajongene nobuso obuninzi bemali yokucoca. Imali ye-Negligence esekelwe kwixabiso lexabiso lesiseko ifuna ubungqina bomsebenzi wenkathalo, wokwaphuka, wokwaphuka, kunye nomonakalo.

Ukusebenza kwetyala loluntu njengesixhobo sokhuseleko lwemekobume kuxhomekeke kubuchule bokumangalelwa nokuchacha. Xa urhulumente ngokwakhe engumntu ongcolisayo (ukunokuba kunokwenzeka ngemisebenzi yasemkhosini, imisebenzi yoshishino, okanye ukungakhathali ekulawuleni amazwe kawonke-wonke) kufuneka aqhube indlela yokudibana kwemigaqo yokuzikhusela ekuzimelani nokuzikhusela kwingxaki.

UMthetho weQumrhu loMasipala:

EUnited States, iFederal Tort Peacents Act (FTCA) iphazamisa ukukhusela ulawulo lwezikhundla zokutobha ngenxa yezenzo zokungakhathali okanye eziphosakeleyo zabasebenzi besizwe abasebenza kumsebenzi wabo. Noko ke, iFTCA iqulethe iinja ezininzi, kuquka iingxelo ezisekelwe ekusetyenzisweni kwemisebenzi ecacileyo. Oku “kungagqibeli kokusebenza okungaqhelekanga” kusoloko kuvala ityala lomonakalo wemekobume obangelwa zisigqibo somgaqo okanye izigqibo zokulawula, kwanaxa izigqibo ezibangela umonakalo omkhulu kwindalo.

“Umsebenzi wobuchule ubonisa umda phakathi kokhuseleko lorhulumente noxanduva. Iinkundla zisoloko zikholelwa ukuba ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zibandakanya inxalenye yomgwebo okanye ukhetho, ezo zenzo azikhuselekanga kwityala/nakuba umgwebo ubungakhathalelwanga.”

Ingxaki Esembindini: Ukulungelelanisa uBukhosi nokuphendula

Imfazwe esisiseko phakathi kokhuseleko olulawulayo noxanduva lwabemi lomonakalo wemeko-bume icacile: ukukhusela urhulumente ekumangalelweni, kodwa umonakalo wemekobume obangelwa linyathelo likarhulumente okanye kukungathathi nxaxheba. Olu xinezeleko luyingozi ngakumbi kwiimeko ezibandakanya ulawulo lwendalo, imisebenzi yezemibutho yoluntu, kunye nemisebenzi yomkhosi.

Qwalasela ukuchitheka kwe-oyile yolundi olujikelezayo lwe-oyile , apho i-BP yagcinwa ifanelekile phantsi komthetho wasekuhlaleni. Kodwa ukuba inqanawa okanye isibonelelo sikarhulumente esisebenzisayo sibangele ukuchitheka okufanayo, amaxhoba angajongana nothintelo oluphezulu. Ngokufanayo, xa amasebe esebe endlela yohola wolwandle ewenziwe ngokungakhathaliyo ebangela ukuphuphuma nokungcoliswa kwemichiza, okanye xa amaqumrhu amaziko karhulumente engqutha ahla amahlathi akhokelela kwimililo eyingozi engaqhelekanga, amarhafu kufuneka aqonde umxhasi okhusela umgangatho osebenzayo wokuzikhusela ekufumaneni imbuyiselo.

Umthetho Wetyala Obonisa Ungquzulwano

  • United States v. Mitchell (1983): INkundla ePhakamileyo yathi urhulumente angamangalelwa ngenxa yetyala lemali phantsi koMthetho we Tucker ukuba umthetho uveze ilungelo elincinci lokuhlawula, naxa ulawulo oluphezulu lusetyenziswa. Eli tyala lavula indlela emxinwa yomonakalo wempahla enxulumene nokungasetyenziswa kakuhle koovimba bemali.
  • Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation (1990): Iqaqambisa iimfuno ezimileyo kunye neziphumo zokuzikhusela kolawulo oluphezulu kwimimandla engqongileyo. INkundla yalinganisela amandla abemi okuvavanya izigqibo zolawulo lwelizwe, ngokunempumelelo ukomeleza ukukhusela ukunqanda ukuphuma kwimpumlo ebanzi.
  • United States v. Navajo Nation (2009): INkundla ibeka isithintelo esingakumbi kwilahleko echasene norhulumente yokwaphula imisebenzi yezorhwebo malunga nobuncwane bendalo, iqinisa umsebenzi okhethekileyo.

Ezi meko zibonisa ukuba isebe lezetyala lisoloko lithobela amasebe aphetheyo nalawulayo kwimicimbi yezomthetho, lishiye igumbi elincinane lokufumana ityala lasekuhlaleni ngaphandle kokuba kukho umgwebi ocacileyo nocacileyo.

Iindawo ezikhethekileyo ezisemthethweni nezingqukuva: Ukugada Umhlaba

Phezu kwayo nje le mfundiso iqhelekileyo, iindlela eziliqela ezisemthethweni zivumela iimfanelo zoluntu ukuba zisebenze ngokuchasene nemikhosi karhulumente yomonakalo wemekobume:

Iintsomi ezikwindawo efihlakeleyo

Imithetho ingawuphazamisa ukhuseleko lwe-odolars lobukhosi ngemimiselo ethile. I-FTCA ngomnye umzekelo obalaseleyo; urhulumente uwiso-mthetho, owaziwa ngokuba yi-tort zenzo, uthintelo lwezothetho, kodwa ngokufuthi lubangela umonakalo (umz., ii-R340 000 ngelinye icala) kwaye lufuna ukudinwa kwezolawulo. Amaphondo amaninzi anemimiselo ebekek ’ ityala elisebumeni ebangela ukuba abameli be-orhulumente baphendule kwiindleko zococel, ezinjenge-Spill Compenition and Lawulacts.

Imisebenzi yentengiso

Xa urhulumente ebandakanyeka kwimisebenzi yezorhwebo okanye ye-propritary (ngaphandle kwemisebenzi ye-oyile ekhethekileyo), iinkundla zisoloko zikhaba igophe lokukhusela ukukhusela ukudleka. Umzekelo, ukuba inkampani yamandla karhulumente ayikhange isebenzise i-oyile okanye isibonelelo samanzi sikamasipala sokonakalisa umlambo, urhulumente unokuthi anyangwe njengenye inkampani yabucala. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yalumkela olu calucalulo kwi-New York v. United States (1946), kwaye ihlala ilimbombo lesiseko se-FTCA's''''''emisebenzi ye-FORGON.

Imithetho yokusingqongileyo ebhadlileyo

Imithetho yemekobume efana ne-Celean Water Act, Clean Air Act, kunye ne-Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RRRA) iquka amalungiselelo okuba ukhuseleko lwezikhuseli zemeko-bume ezizimeleyo zelizwe ngokweenjongo ezithile. Umzekelo, phantsi kwe-RCRA, “nabani na” ufanelwe kukuphulwa, kunye negama elithi“person” liquka“naliphi na isebe, umbutho, okanye isixhobo sokhuseleko, okanye isixhobo se-United States. Ngokufanayo, iComprehensive Environmentation Resotion, Compenensation, kunye neLiaty Act yowitho lwesizwe olufanele ukuhlanjululwa, ngokokuthintelwa kwezongalo.

Ezi mithetho yokugweba zizixhobo ezinamandla: zivumela amaqela azimeleyo ukuba amangalele umngcolisi karhulumente ngqo kwinkundla karhulumente. Noko ke, maxa wambi, amatyala aye acel ’ umngeni ukuhlahlela okunjengokungaphula uMthetho weshumi elinesithoba. Homer v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (2014, inkundla yesizwe yaxhasa ukuvinjwa kweRCRA kokhuseleko lweNkukhusela ulawulo lwezimo yeCongress, hayi ukusetyenziswa kweKhomishini yayo ephethe uClaus Claus nempahla yayo.

Uxanduva lomgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo noLawulo

Ukudibanisa phakathi kokhuselo olulawulayo noxanduva lwabemi kungumgaqo-nkqubo wemeko-bume ngeendlela ezininzi:

  • [[NTLA] I-Deterrence: Ukuba urhulumente uyazi ukuba isenokumangalelwa ngenxa yokungakhathali kwemekobume, kunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba kufakelwe kwimali yokukhusela nokucwangcisa. Ngokuchasene noko, ukukhusela ukunciphisa ukuphendula ityala kwaye kusenokukhokelela ekunciphiseni indleko eyandisa umngcipheko wemekobume.
  • Ingqokelela epheleleyo: Uluntu nabantu abenzakalisayo ngenxa yongcoliso olubangelwa ngurhulumente baxhomekeke kumonakalo wokufumana kwakhona iindleko zonyango, ukulahlekelwa yimpahla, nomgangatho wobomi. Ukhuseleko oluphezulu lungashiya amaxhoba ngaphandle kokucela uncedo, lutshintshela umthwalo wemali kwabo bangakwaziyo ukuwuthwala.
  • [[NTLA] Unyanzeliso lomthetho: Amasebe anyanzelisayo angathandabuza ukusukela ukwaphulwa kwamanye amaqumrhu karhulumente ngenxa yokungakuthandi ukulungiselela, ulwalamano oluphakathi, okanye ukugonya. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwiimeko apho amaziko esizwe ephakathi kwabachaphazeli bemekobume embi, njengoko kubhaliwe yi- Government Accomption Office[]
  • Imfundiso yePublic Trust: Amanye amaphondo nabaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi imfundiso yokuthemba uwonke wonke, enyanzela urhulumente ukuba akhusele ubuncwane bendalo, umgangatho opheleleyo wokuzikhusela ngokwemvelo kwizenzo ezithoba ubuncwane. Le ngcamango ihlala ikhuphisana kodwa ifumene ulwamkelo kwinguquko yemozulu.

Ukuthelekiswa Kwamazwe Ngamazwe

Iinkqubo zomthetho ezahlukeneyo zisingatha uxinezeleko ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo. EKhanada, uLawulo lweSihlalo noMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko worhulumente, kwaye amaphondo anomthetho ofanayo. Ummandla okhethekileyo womonakalo wemekobume ukhokele iinkundla zaseKhanada ukuba zijonge ukungcoliswa kwemiba eyingozi “engekho-soligrali". Ingqungquthela evumela iisuti. E-Jamani, urhulumente uphathwa njengelungu elizimeleyo lomthetho owenzelwe ukukhusela imeko-bume, kwaye [[FLT:] isebenza kwimisebenzi eyingozi epheleleyo, kuquka leyo iqhutywa ngamashishini. Inkundla yezobulungisa yaseYurophu ibambelele kwi-EUSCORC ikwathiwerce imele inike izicompuza ezisebenzayo zokuxhatshana ngokomthetho zokhuseleko lwemeko-mo-mo-ntle yesizwe kwi-yonke le propati yokhuseleko-yongasayithi yesizwe.

Le mizekelo ithelekisa ichaza ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo olupheleleyo akuyonto ifunekayo kulawulo lwale mihla; kunoko, lukhetho olusemgangathweni olunokuhlengahlengiselwa ukukhuthaza ukubekek ’ ityala imekobume.

Iingxaki Eziyandayo: Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Nokungamanyani Okusekugqibeleni

Njengokuba utshintsho lwemozulu lusanda, izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ziyavavanywa ngokutsha. Imithetho ilwa noorhulumente ngenxa yonciphiso olunganelanga lokukhutshwa kwemveliso ```````FLT'] Urgenda''' ityala eNetherlands kunye neU.S. ingqwalaselo yezoburhulumente. /ukubuza ukuba inkundla ingawuvumela na umqathango wokunciphisa ukukhutshwa komoya. Ngelixa ukhuseleko lungasetyenziswa jikelele ekunikezeleni uncedo lwezikhuseli (imiyalelo ekufuneka zivunyelwe ngokuqhelekileyo nxamnye namagosa karhulumente kumsebenzi wawo womntu ngamnye), iingozi zemeko yemozulu eyingozi edlulileyo zijongenezona nezo ngxaki zokhuseleko zemozulu ezomeleleyo.

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. 2021 [ku-[FL:0] P.L.C. v. Mayor kunye neBhunga lesiXeko laseBaltimore sathetha ngemibandela ye-proceded ekususweni kwamatyala emozulu kurhulumente kwinkundla yezolawulo kodwa asizange sifikelele kumbuzo wokhuselo oluphezulu. Noko ke, oorhulumente bamazwe abasebenzisa i-aflyces ezingundoqo ze-astric enokuba bajongene, ukunxaxhina, ukunxaxha, okanye ukungaphumeleli ukulumkisa urhulumente ukuba unokuzikhusela.

"Xa kujongwa ungxamiseko lwemozulu, iinkundla eNetherlands, e-Ireland, naseFransi zibambelele kwelokuba ukukhusela ukhuseleko lokuzilawula akukhuseleki koorhulumente kumsebenzi wabo womGaqo-siseko wokukhusela abemi kwingozi yemekobume. Lo mdla wehlabathi ungayiguqula le mfundiso kumashumi eminyaka azayo.”

Ukulungelelanisa Umgaqo: Umiselo Lwenjongo Yotshintsho

Abenzi bezonyango nabaphengululi baye bacebisa iinguqu eziliqela zokucombulula uxinezeleko oluphakathi kolawulo oluphezulu lomzimba nolawulo lwemekobume:

  • Ukucutha Umsebenzi wobukrelekrele Obehlukeneyo: Iinkundla okanye izindlu zowiso-mthetho zingalinganisela ukunxaxhi kwizigqibo zenkqubo yomgangatho ophezulu, ngeli lixa kugcinwa umgangatho ophezulu uxanduva. Umzekelo, ukhetho lokwakha uhola ndlela ngumgaqo; ukungaphumeleli ukuseka ngokufanelekileyo iikhalbes ze-culves kuyasebenza.
  • Ukusasaza ukuhlahlela kwiMithetho yokusingqongileyo: Iindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zinokuphazamisa ngokucacileyo zonke izizathu zokukhusela inyathelo phantsi kwemithetho yemeko-bume, zisusa izinto ezizizo ezikhokelela kwixabiso eliphezulu kwaye zilibazise ukucoca.
  • [[NT.:0] Ukulungisa iNgxowa-mali yeNkcubeko yoRhulumente yokuNqakashelwa Kwemekobume: Kunokuba kuxhomekeke ekumangaleleni kwabantu ngabanye, ingxowa-mali yembuyiselo enyanzelekileyo, ``ingaxhaswa yiSupergradad'''. Isenokuxhaswa ngemali ngezicelo ze-appropring kwaye isetyenziswa ukulungisa umonakalo obangelwa yizenzo zikarhulumente, ngokucombulula amalungelo ngokuchasene namaqela ajongene neembopheleleko.
  • IziHlalisi zoMgaqo-siseko weSizwe: Iimeko ezininzi zinamalungelo okusilela kwemekobume (umz., Montana, Pennsylvania, New York) ezinokuchazwa ukudlula ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu xa kunikwa uncedo lokwaphulwa.

Ezi nguqulelo zifuna ukuthanda kwezobupolitika, kodwa imfuneko ekhulayo yebutho labantu yokusesikweni nokuziphendulela ityala isenokuguquka.

Isiphelo: Apho Le mfundiso Ingqinelana Ngako Namhlanje

Ulwalamano phakathi kokhuseleko olulawulayo noxanduva lwabemi lomonakalo wemekobume luhlala lungenye yezona ndawo zintsonkothileyo neziphikiswayo zomthetho wokusingqongileyo. Ngoxa oorhulumente abakhusela ukukhusela ukuma kwemekobume ngokwembali bekhuselwe ngokufanelekileyo, iinkqubo zomthetho zale mihla zikrobe iimfanelo zokusingqongileyo ezivumela ukuba simo simelwane nemeko-luvo ekhethekileyo.

Nevertheless, large gaps remain. The discretionary function exception, damage caps, and onerous procedural requirements often prevent victims from obtaining meaningful redress. This imbalance undermines both the deterrent effect of environmental law and the principle that polluters—including governments—should pay for the harm they cause.

Njengoko imozulu isanda kwaye ukuwohloka kwemekobume kuhambela phambili, ingcinezelo yokuguqula iimfundiso zokukhusela ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu iya kwanda. IiNkundla, izindlu zowiso-mthetho, kunye nemibutho yezizwe ngezizwe inciphisa ukhuseleko lokonakaliswa kwemekobume ngokuthe ngcembe, ibonakalisa ukuvuma ukuba ukuphendula kuyimfuneko kumthetho nakukhuseleko lobuncwane obuqhelekileyo. Kubenzi bezomthetho, abaxhasi bemekobume, nabenzi bemigaqo-siseko, ukuqonda le ndawo kuya kuba nzulu ekuqhubekiseleni phambili kokukhuselwa kokusiswa kwemekobume nokufikelela kokusesikweni.

Ukuphinda ufunde, amanqaku eMelika Bar Association angokhuselo lwemongamo yezolawulo ye- anikela ngohlalutyo olunzulu lwemeko zakutshanje, ngelixa UN Programme yeNkathi yokusingqongileyo yengxelo engokukhusela urhulumente kunye nengozi yemekobume inika imbono yomhlaba wonke.