UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, usebenza njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, ukuseka isakhiwo sikarhulumente wesizwe nokuqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko. Phakathi kwemixholo yayo ehlala ihleli kwaye iphikiswana kukudibana kwamalungelo alinganayo nabemi, ."principles eziye zachazwa, zandiswa, zaza zaphikiswana ngeenkulungwane. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wangaphambili ungaqinisekisanga ngokucacileyo ukulingana, ngokulandelayo ukupheliswa kwemithetho ebhaliweyo, kunye nemithetho egweba iye yawuguqula waba luxwebhu oluphilayo oluqhubeka luthetha ngeenkqubo ezingekho semthethweni. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa indlela ukulingana kwamalungelo abekwe ngayo phakathi komGaqo-siseko, uhlolisisa indaleko, kwaye uhlalutya imingeni yakudala eqhubekayo eqhubekayo engobume ubume ubume bomthetho waseMelika.

Ingcamango yokulingana kumGaqo-siseko

Ukulingana kusisiseko sentanda-bulumko yezobupolitika yaseMerika, kodwa ukudityaniswa kwayo ngomgaqo-siseko kwafika ngokuthe ngcembe. Isibhengezo seSibhengezo senkululeko sokuba “bonke abantu badalwe ngokulinganayo” simise umgangatho olinganayo, kodwa umGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawunemiqathango ephikisa ngqo loo njongo . Ngokubalulekileyo isithathu se-Fiffth savumelana kunye nokuqhubekeka korhwebo lwamakhoboka. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, umGaqo-siseko walungiswa ukuvala umsantsa phakathi kwesithembiso saso kunye nenyaniso.

Ingqiqo esisiseko kwisindululo nomGaqo-siseko wokuqala

Ibinzana elithi “wonke amadoda adalwe elingana” yayiyintetho yemvukelo ngowe-1776, ivakalisa ukuba urhulumente unelungelo lokuvumela abalawulwayo. Noko ke, umGaqo-siseko wagunyazisa ubukhoboka kunye namalungelo okuvota alinganiselweyo ngokuyintloko kumadoda amhlophe aphethe impahla. IBhili yamaLungelo (1791) yakhusela inkululeko yasekuhlaleni (i-speech, unqulo, ingqungquthela, , kodwa ayizange ithethe ngokulingana kohlanga, ubufana, okanye udidi.

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lukaClaus: Ilitye elisisiCwangciso soMgaqo-siseko

IsiHlanziso se-Fourtenth (168) ngokusisiseko saguqula indlela yomGaqo-siseko yokulingana. I-Sumetic Protection Claus ithi: “Akukho Zwe... liyakukhanyela nabani na onegunya elilinganayo lokukhusela imithetho." Eli binzana lalijolise ekukhuseleni amaMelika aseAfrika asandul' ukukhululwa kwimithetho yomthetho womthetho womlomo (Imithetho Emnyama), kodwa ukususela ngoko liye lanweba lisebenza kwimibalwa-"iiiifomu", ubufana, ubufana, kunye nobuhlanga, kunye nokufaneleka. Inkundla Ephakamileyo itolika ibiyitolika njengefuna ukuba iphathe abantu ngokufanayo, ngaphandle kokuba kukho ukuthethelela okunyanzekileyo.

Ukufuna Amalungelo Nokufuna Umgangatho Wezobupolitika

Ukulingana kwezobupolitika kufuna ukufikelela ngokulinganayo kwi-colot. IsiHluliso seNkqutyana (170) salela ukungavumi ukuvota nelungelo lokuvota ngokusekelwe kuhlanga, kodwa amazwe aseMazantsi ayiphepha ngerhafu yokuvota, uvavanyo lokubhalisa, kunye nogonyamelo. [[FLT]] IsiHlam-Nentententh [[FLT:] [1920] [20]) ukwandisa amabhinqa. [[FLT:]] Imithetho ethintelwe yintengiso yezothu epheleleyo [[FLT] [[FLT:] [5] [5] kunye nomthetho ogunyaza umthetho ogunyazisayo]. [1964] Imithetho enyanze ulawulo lwemithetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni nesiseko somGaqo-siseko wawo

Amalungelo abantu ngamalungelo okufumana ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezifana neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, umsebenzi, indawo yokuhlala, nemfundo. UmGaqo-siseko unika isiseko sala malungelo ngemiqathango emininzi.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Inkululeko Yeziseko

IsiHlalisi soMgqibo sokuqala [[FLT: 1] sikhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, yokuhlanganisa, yokushicilela, yonqulo, kunye nesicelo. La malungelo abangela amaqela aphantsi amele ukulingana ngaphandle koloyiko lwempindezelo karhulumente. Umzekelo, i-Civil Rights Movement ixhomekeke kwintlanganiso yoxolo (umz., Matshi eWashington) kunye nentetho (umz., Martin Luther King Jr.’s “ndinephupha”) ukuvavanya intetho. Inkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ikholelwa ukuba le nkululeko ibalulekile ekulondolozeni intlanganiso yedemokhrasi yaye isoloko ingumtya wokuqala wokuzikhusela amalungelo eempumelelo.

Uhlaziyo Lwe - 13: Ukuphela Kobukhoboka

Ifakwe kuqikelelo ngonyaka ka-1865, IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesine saphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nobukhoboka obungekho semthethweni “ngaphandle kwesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho.” Yayililungiselelo lokuqala lomgaqo-siseko ukuthetha ngqo ngokuthotywa kwesizwe. Oku kubalulekileyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo itolike uLawulo lweshumi elinesithathu njengolunika amandla iNgqungquthela yokuphelisa kungekuphela nje kobukhoboka kodwa kwaneenkqubo ze-“badgeges kunye neziganeko zobukhoboka”. [=imithetho ekhuthaza ucalucalulo lohlanga ngokwezimo zangasese.] Le sizathu saxhasa [[FLT:] iSivume samalungelo eencwadi [[FLT]

Uhlaziyo Lweshumi Elinane: Ukhuseleko olulinganayo nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Ngaphaya koKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus, uHlaziyo lweNkqutyana luqulathe iNkqubo kaClaus, ekwakusemgangathweni ekukhuliseni amalungelo abantu. Imfundiso yokuququzelela isebenzisa i-Seed Process Clauslee ukwenza ukuba uninzi lwamalungelo asebenzayo kumazwe. Ngaphezu koko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ifumene ilungelo elingundoqo lokuzimela kwi 145 Isimendulo, ixhasa izigqibo zokuthintela ukuthintela (]Gristold v.Connectic, 1965]) kunye nokuqhola isisu ([FLT:].[5]

Uhlaziyo Lweshumi elinesihlanu Nangaphezulu

IsiHlalisi seNkqutyana sikwalela ngokucacileyo ukukhanyela ilungelo lokuvota ngokusekelwe “kuhlobo, umbala, okanye kwimeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka.” IsiHlanzi seNkqubela-Mbeko [ esithe kratya someleza amalungelo okuvota ngokususa irhafu kunyulo lwemiqathango. Oku kugxininisa ukuzinikela komGaqo-siseko kulingana kwezobupolitika, nangona umthetho udinge ungenelo oluqhubekayo.

Iqela lamaLungelo aBami kunye noTshintsho loMgaqo-siseko

IMbutho yaMalungelo e-Civil yoo-1950 neyee-1960 yayilixesha lokuguqula okuye kwabangela utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko ngokutyhubela uxinzelelo kuwo onke amasebe amathathu karhulumente.

Umthetho ongundoqo ovela kwiNtlanganiso

Iinkqubo ezintathu eziphambili zikarhulumente zazichaza iimfuno zale nkampani:

Nganye kwezi zenzo ixhomekeke kwigunya lomgaqo-siseko, ngokubanzi kuClaus noMphetho-weshumi elinesine (ye kwaye ijongene nocelomngeni olulandelayo olungokwasemthethweni olwavavanya imida yamandla ombutho.

IziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko Ngasemva kweXesha loQonda

Le nkqubo ikwakhuthaza ulwamkelo lokulungisa okubanzi. Intelekelelo ethenjiweyo yamaLungelo aMalungelo alinganayo [EFLT]] (ERA], okokuqala yaziswa ngo1923, yafumana uvuselelo olutsha kwi 1970 kodwa ekugqibeleni yasilela ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango. Noko ke, intsingiselo yokulingana kwamadoda ngokwesini iye yaphuhliswa ngotoliko lwezi-Diejogth Amendmentment [iiiie] ngokubalaseleyo kwi . Reed [196], eyathi yabangela ukuba athandwe ngumthetho amabhinqa athandwe ngaphezu kooomasime, kunye .[FLD]] .[FLD]966]

Iingcaciso zomgangatho namalungelo asekuhlaleni ezizezeejaji

INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko yokulingana namalungelo abantu. Izigqibo zayo ziye zanda yaye maxa wambi, zithintelwa ngokulinganiselweyo phantsi komthetho.

Ukusuka Kwipali Ukuya KuBrown: Isiphelo Sokwahlukana Kodwa Esilinganayo

[[NTLT:0] Pnety v. Ferguson (1996], iNkundla yaxhasa ucalucalulo lohlanga phantsi “kokwahlukene kodwa kuyalingana” imfundiso, ibambe ukuba uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine olungakuthinteli ukwahlulwa kwezizwe. Oku kugunyazisa ukurhoxiswa kwesizwe. UGqibo lokuzala nokurhoxa kolwandle lwajika [[FLT:] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo [1954], eyathi nganye yavakalisa ukuba izikolo zikawonke wonke ezithe zabekwa phantsi “zingalinganiyo” kwaye yazaphula i-mthetho ukhuseleko olulinganayo. [[FLT] BBN[FFF] ayizange inikeze kuphela ii-degrase-ogracties I-Octive provity Imovesty Imovement.[FFFFF]]

UGqr. Virginia noMdla Osisiseko Welungelo Lokutshata

i- Virginia (1967), iNkundla yawisa imithetho ekwalekwa umtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo, ibambelele kwilungelo elisisiseko kwaye ukwahlulwa kohlanga kufuneka kuvavanywe ngokungqongqo. Eli tyala liqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko yokutshata ayinakuthintelwa ngocalucalulo lobuhlanga olulukileyo.

Ukugada kunye nelungelo lokuthetha wedwa

.Roe v. [773]), iNkundla yamkela ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuzimela wedwa phantsi kwe-Century Processol Claus ekhusela isigqibo sebhinqa sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Ngelixesha impikiswano, umthetho ogunyazisa ukulingana nokuzimela ngokwamaqumrhu. [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] [iiiiii-Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [202], iNkumbuso weNkulawula .Ro , ibuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa kulawulo. Oku kugxininiso kumalungelo akhuselwayo.

Obergefell v. Hodges kunye nomgangatho womtshato

.Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkundla yathi izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwabelana ngesondo zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata phantsi koMsebenzi woMxokelelwano noKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. Isigqibo saphawula ulwandiso lwamalungelo abantu, siphawula ukuba “ilungelo lokutshata lilungelo elisisiseko elisemthethweni kwinkululeko yomntu.” (Opinion ekwiNkundla

Isenzo Esizinzileyo Nokhuseleko Olulinganayo

INkundla ibhekise kwimigaqo-nkqubo engabonakaliyo yohlanga yaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo. IRegents zeYunivesithi yase California v. Bakke [1988], ivumele uhlanga lugqalwe njengefektha kwimiqathango yokwamkelwa kodwa yalahlwaye imiqathango. Graitem v. Bollinger [2003] [2003], ixhase iYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law Schools. Noko ke, [[FLT: 4.] ididefish yemistss. v [FLT] [FFFLT] [25:] [20], iknamvolu , iphumele kwizenzo zolu luhlu oluphezulu, iinkqubo zokuzimela ezithiweyo, ezichanisayo.

Imbambano Yangoku Kumgangatho Namalungelo Asekuhlaleni

Ngaphandle kwenkqubela emiselwe kumthetho womGaqo-siseko, umahluko oqhubekayo kunye nocelomngeni olutsha luyaqhubeka lubumba ubume bokulingana kwamalungelo abantu.

Ubulungisa Bobuhlanga Nezenzo Zobuhlanga

I- Umbutho omnyama uMatter uzise ingqwalasela ehlaziyiweyo kuhlanga-luvo olulawulayo lwenkqubo kwi-potol, ulwaphulo-mthetho, kunye namathuba ezoqoqosho. Ulawulo lujolise kutshintsho lwenkqubo olufana nokuphelisa ukuthintelwa komzimba okufanelekileyo, ukuthotywa kwamapolisa amajoni axhotyisiweyo, nokunikwa imvume yokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi. Ngoxa isiseko somgaqo-mGaqo-siseko solo sikwisiqinisekiso sokhuseleko olulinganayo, umthetho kumgangatho karhulumente uphelile, ushiya imibandela emininzi kwimisebenzi yombuso neyongingqi.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Angaphaya Komtshato

Ukulingana komtshato kwaba yimpumelelo enkulu, kodwa amadabi asemthethweni ayaqhubeka ngaphezu kwamalungelo e-LGBTQ, emisebenzini, emakhaya, kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke, kunye nokunyamekela impilo. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo Bostock v. Clayton County[ [2020]) abambelela ekubeni iSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamalungelo oMsebenzi we-19649, silwalela ucalucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo kunye neempawu zobufana. Noko ke, ukungquzulana kwezo zonqulo namalungelo e-transder, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele ukuthatha inxaxheba nokungena kwenkathalo-yo, kuhlala kusebenza kwiinkundla nakwizibo zomthetho. [[FLT.2:] Umthetho wobungangalingani nomgangatho wobufana nowe-compulu.

Ukubonelela ngamalungelo kunye nokufumaneka kokhetho

Amalungelo anika imvume ahlala phantsi kosongelo ngemithetho ye-ID, ukuhlambulula iirolosi zovoti, i-gerrymander, kunye nemiqathango kwii-posi-in bolot. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Shelby County v. Umbatho wokubuyisela amalungelo e- [2013]) waphelisa indlela yokugquma intengo yoMthetho wamaLungelo, ngokunempumelelo ukuphelisa ulawulo lwamazwe ngembali yocalulo. Ukususela ngoko, amazwe amaninzi agqithisele imithetho ethintela ukuvota. Imigudu yokubuyisela ulwa kwamaLungelo Amalungelo eMgaqo-phambili ayikaphumelelanga, ishiya abaninzi bengabacuphi ekucinezelweni kwemi.

Amalungelo Aphulukileyo NeADA

I-American enoMthetho wokukhubazeka (ADA) ka-1990, ewiswe phantsi kweKhomishini yeCongregation Claus neCandelo 5 loMdambi we-145, ithintela ucalucalulo emsebenzini, iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke, kunye neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke. Ukanti abantu abaneziphene basena imiqobo ebalulekileyo emsebenzini, kwizithuthi, kunye nezonyango. Ukuchanaba kwakutshanje kujolise kunikezelo, amalungelo abantu abakwimeko yempilo e-ADA, kunye nokunyanzeliswa kogunyaziso lwe-mgalelo lwe-aADA. Isiqinisekiso sokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke siyaqhubeka sisebenza njengesiseko sokhuseleko lwamalungelo ekhubazeko olukhubazekileyo.

Umgangatho wesini kunye namalungelo okuzala

Emva kokubhukuqwa kwe Roe v. Imfazwe yamalungelo okuzala itshintshelwe kwiinkundla zelizwe nakwiindlu zowiso-mthetho. Amanye amazwe aye andisa ukufikelela, ngoxa amanye emisele ukuvalwa kolawulo, ngelixesha ezinye ziye zamisela ukumiselwa kokuma okukhoyo. Imingeniselo esemthethweni isoloko ibiza iziqinisekiso zomthetho zobumfihlo, ukulingana, kunye nokuzilawula ngokwamanyama. Kumgangatho worhulumente, iPrent Fairness Act [FLT:] [2023]) ilungiselela iindawo zokuhlala ukwenzela iimeko ezinxulumene nokukhulelwa, ngelixa umkhosi wobucala wobuGawulayo nowe-Atlalo. [FLT]

Isiphelo

Ukudityaniswa kokulingana namalungelo abantu kumGaqo-siseko kubonisa uhambo olunamandla, olungagqitywanga oluya kubulungisa. Ukusukela ekuhlaziyweni kwakhona ukuya ekuhlaziyweni kweZigqibo zaMalungelo oMbutho wabemi kunye nokulawulwa kwexeshana, intsingiselo yokulingana iye yanweba ngotoliko lomgaqo-siseko, ngenkqubo yowiso-mthetho, nangenkqubo yezentlalo. UMgaqo-siseko uhlala ukho ngeplani kunye namalungelo asekuhlaleni. Ngokuphakama kwemiqathango entsha, ukulingana kwemigaqo-nkqubo yemigaqo yezomthetho, ukulingana kwemiqathango, ukulingana nokungalingani kwemiqathango, nokungalingani kwamalungelo abantu, kunye nobuchule bokulawula amalungelo abantu, ngokungathandabuzekiyo, ngokungathandabuzekiyo, ibali lenkqubo le-demokhrasi, elingundoqo, eliqukelweyo kwisithembiso sokukhuselwa kwemeko-yo.