Imfundiso esisiseko yokhuseleko lombuso esisiseko ekhusela oorhulumente ukuba bangamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isekelwe kumgaqo wamandulo wokuba “ukumkani akanakwenza nto iphosakeleyo,” le mfundiso iguqukele ekubeni liqumrhu elintsokothileyo lomthetho-siseko kunye nomthetho ochaphazela ngokunzulu ukhutshelo-mthetho kwiimeko zikarhulumente zokhuseleko zikawonke-wonke. Xa abantu bengxhwaleka ngabameli besizwe, abaphathi-mthetho, okanye amagosa okhuselo oluphezulu, ngokufuthi abakhusela ukhuseleko oluphezulu bahlala bengumqobo wokuchachachachacha. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo yayo, iimfuno eziluncedo, imigaqo-mthetho, nabaxhasi-mthetho abaxhasayo, kunye nabani na ofuna ukuphendula ityala kwiimeko zikarhulumente. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iziseko lwembali lolawulo lolawulo olulawulayo, ukusebenza kwalo kwiinkundla zanamhlanje, kunye nokungalawule okuthe ngqo.

Isiseko sembali nesomGaqo-siseko

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni ngokusemthethweni ilandela imvelaphi yayo kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho isiBhunu singenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yaso ecacileyo. Emva kweMvukelo yaseMerika, amazwana amatsha azuzwé njengefa le ngxaki yokhuseleko njengemfanelo engundoqo yolawulo. UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States awukhange uluthethele kuqala umba, kodwa ukwenziwa kweSigqibo seshumi elinesixhenxe soMphetho-Mthethweni wesi-1795 ngokucacileyo lomgaqo-siseko. ISinyusombululo sinikela: “Amandla e-Jajini eUnited States awasayi kuthathwa njengokwandisa nasiphi nasiphi na isambatho somthetho okanye umthetho, okanye ukwenziwa okanye ukwenziwa okanye ukwenziwa kwe-AvizegosaseUnited States, nguMgaqongqo weli yenye iRhulumente, okanye yiMitheli okanye yi-Afries okanye i-Advensty.”

Nangona umbhalo ocacileyo weA111 Demendment ibonakala ithintela kuphela iisuti eziziswa ngokuchasene nombuso yi- yelinye izwe [FTLT:1], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayandisa ngokukhawuleza ukufikelela kwayo. Hans v. Louisiana [1890], iNkundla yathi kwakhona uGawulayo umele imo ngokuchasene nombuso wabemi bayo xa isuti isekelwe kumthetho wesizwe. Le nkcazelo yaqinisekisa ukuba ukhuselo lobukhosi alungomgamgamgamgamlo nje kuphela kwinkundla yomthetho, kodwa ngumgaqo osemthethweni obanzi kulwimi oluqhelekileyo. Imimiselo equka eld v. [FT.ET.9999], iqinisekisa ukuba inkundla yenkundla yezomthetho esemthethweni isebenza kumbuso kufuphi nesombululo, ingulo yetyala lokusikhuselo sesizwe, okanye isibambiso singqi semvume sokuqinisekisa isi simo seSindululo seSigwebo.

Ukuqwalasela ngokunzulu umbhalo weA1th Amendment kunye notoliko lwangaphambili, bona [[FLT: 0] iCornell Information Institute ye-Scalement ye-. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi- Alden v. Maine ngomnye umthombo obalulekileyo; uluvo olupheleleyo lufumaneka ngaphaya [[[FLT:]] uJulia [[FLT:]].

Indlela IiOperathi Zaseburhulumenteni Ezilawula Ngayo Namhlanje

Imizekelo ebandakanya amapolisa karhulumente, amasebe olawulo olululo, kunye namasebe ezempilo kawonke-wonke. Amagosa asemthethweni amangalelwe kubuchule bawo bokwenza imicimbi yezorhwebo.

Noko ke, kukho umahluko obalulekileyo phakathi kwentambo esetyenziswa ngurhulumente kunye nengqwele-ofele. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi ex icandelo le- u-[08] ifumene ukuba isuti efuna [ ingqwalaselo ephambili esemthethweni ngokuchasene nomthetho oqhubekayo ayivalwanga yiyo igophe lolawulo oluphezulu. Le rhintyelo encinane ivumela iintambo zokungavavanywa kwemithetho yokungamela okanye imigaqo-mthetho ngaphandle kokugweba ngqo. Umzekelo, ibanjwa lisenokuzisa ukulungiswa ngokuchasene nokusetyenziswa komphathi wesavelitime, ukunikezelwa kwetyala okunganikezelwangagosagosayo kuphela nokungakhangeli kwetyala.

Ngaphaya kwe-Exte Young, amazwana avunyiwe ukufaneleka kwiimeko ezilinganiselweyo ngomthetho. Amazwana amaninzi aye amisela izenzo zezenzo ezithi ngokwenxalenye zikhuseleke ngokusemthethweni kwizinto ezithile ezisekelwe kungakhathali, ezisoloko zinokumosha, iinketho zesaziso ezifutshane, kunye nomsebenzi wesaziso owenziwe ngokungaqhelekanga. Le mimiselo iyahluka ngokwendlela ngokwemeko, yenza umsebenzi webala lamathuba kunye nemiqobo.

Oyena Mgaqo ungundoqo: Osemthethweni v. Ubuchule ngabunye

Umahluko phakathi kokumangalela umphathi-mikhosi kumsebenzi wakhe osemthethweni (ngokusebenza ngokusemthethweni) ngokuchasene nombilini wakhe (ukuphuma komntu) ugxeka kwimicimbi yokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke. Ukuba umchasi-mthetho ubonise ukuba igosa lisebenza ngaphandle komqathango womsebenzi okanye libandakanyeke ekuziphatheni kakubi ngabom, igosa lingaba negunya ngokobuqu. Noko ke, urhulumente omninzi uququzelelo lwezenzo zokwamka unika ulwaneliseko okanye ukhuseleko lwezenzo zobulumko ezenziwa ngokholo, okwenza ukuba ukugoba komntu ngamnye kube nzima ngokufanayo. Ngaphezu koko, ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo [[FLT:]] imfundiso ikhusela abaphathi-mthetho kwizonomonakalo ngaphandle kokuba bawuseke umthetho ngokucacileyo, oko kudla ngokutshona okuthe ngqo xa umgangatho woko wokhuseleko.

Imida Nezinto Ezikhethekileyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu

Ngoxa ukhuseleko oluphezulu lunamandla, alunakuphelelanga. Iindlela ezintathu ezingundoqo zivumela iiligigi zokoyisa ikhusi: imvume yombuso yesivumelwano , ukuqulunqwa kwe-, kunye nenobumba yentsomi [[FLT:] echazwe ngasentla.

Imithetho Ivumelana Nezibhengezo Ezithi Ziyintsebenziswano

Uninzi lwamazwe luvumela umlinganiselo wokhuseleko lwezobugrogrisi owenziwa ngabaqeshwa abasebenza kumlinganiselo wemisebenzi yabo. Umzekelo, iTort Peonts Act (Imithetho yeGovernment 76 810 set seq.) ivumela ukungakhathali kulawulo olumalunga nolawulo lwe-$500,000 ngokunokwenzeka. Amanye amazwe afaka iipempekisi eziphantsi njenge $1100 000 okanye ngokupheleleyo ukhuseleko lwe-octress. Amanye amagunya angazifaki izityholo ezinxulumene “nemisebenzi ye-odolarth'e” okanye“ izigqibo ezingo zolawulo” – umahluko omkhulu odla ngokuzigima ngokuchasene nokhuseleko lukawonke. [[FLT:] ungqubano lwe-Roctresturess [R] [12]

Ukuhlaziywa kweBhunga

Ngaphantsi koLawulo lwe-14th Amendment, iNgqungquthela isenokufumana ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwesizwe ngomthetho onyanzelisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, uLusalo kunye noMthetho we-Medical Let kunye namaMelika aneSiphendu soMthemo sokungakhubazeki[ kufunyaniswe ukuba akhuseleke ngokusemthethweni (kwimo ethile). Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakathi ePhakamileyo ibeke imida engqongqo kweli gunya, ifuna ukuba umthetho ube “umthetho owenziwe ngolungeleleneyo nolungelelaniso. [kukhuselwa kokwaphulwa komgaqo womthetho. [kukhuseleko lukawonke, iinkundla ze-FLD] ngaphandle kokuba igunyazwe kwemeko eqinileyo ye-Active [FFoct:5]

Ukutshaya Nganye Phantsi Kwecandelo Lowe - 1983

Umsebenzi oqhelekileyo kukuzisa amalungelo asekuhlaleni phantsi kwama-42 e-U.S.C. ngo-1998 ngokuchasene namagosa ngamanye. ICandelo livumela amagosa aqhelekileyo ukuba amelane nomthetho-siseko okanye amalungelo omthetho. Ngenxa yokuba ukumangalelwa kuchasene negosa ngokobuqu, ulawulo oluphezulu alusebenzi. Noko ke, igosa lingagunyazisa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo , oluyinkuselo kwiimfanelo zomthetho, hayi i-galelo lomthetho. Lo mahluko ubalulekile: ukuthintelwa okufanelekileyo kunokungasetyenziswa ukuba urhulumente ukhetha ukukhusela igosapho, kodwa akuyinqandanga isuti. Ngokungakumbi, umasipala okanye ummandla unokuba phantsi konyaka wama-1998 [1]

Amatyala Okhuseleko Loluntu: Iingxaki Ezikhethekileyo

Amatyala okhuseleko lukawonke-wonke — abo babandakanya ukugcinwa komthetho kukuziphatha okubi, ukungakhathali kokulungisa, okanye ukungaphumeleli koncedo olungxamisekileyo — bajongene nentlanganisela ekhethekileyo yemiqobo ekhusela ukulawulwa kwezixhobo ezizimeleyo. Amacandelwana alandelayo ahlola ezona meko ziqhelekileyo.

Umthetho Onyanzela Ukuziphatha Okuphosakeleyo

Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho, njengokusetyenziswa kwemikhosi egqithisileyo, ukubanjwa ngobuxoki, okanye ukufa okuphosakeleyo, kuphakathi kwezona zinto zifunwa nguwonke-wonke. Ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu kukhusela umbutho wamapolisa kwisuti engqalileyo. Amapolisa ngoko ke kufuneka aphethule amagosa ngamanye ngaphantsi komthetho we-1901 okanye we-orentirt, kodwa kufuneka asebenzise zombini ukukhusela ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kunye nomthetho worhulumente ukwenzela izenzo zobulumko. Amazwe amaninzi akwanika ukhuseleko kumagosa oxolo xa esenza imisebenzi yawo, ngaphandle kokuba abonise “ukungakhathali okanye ukuziphatha okubi okungathandekiyo."

Umzekelo, Smith v. [19983], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumela isohlwayo ngokuchasene nolungiso lwabaphathi bokhuseleko lwamabanjwa ngabom, kodwa kuphela ngenxa yokuba amagosa aye amangalelwa kubuchule bawo bomntu ngamnye. Urhulumente ngokwakhe wayenomzimba ozikhuselayo. Ngokufanayo, kwipropati ephezulu [Nkululelanix v. [FLT:] Ityala, iNku. (20) iNku.

Ukulungiswa Nokuxelwa Entolongweni

Ababanjwa bajongene nemiqobo engqongqo kwimiqobo engokwasemthethweni. Umthetho woTshintsho lobuPrigon uPrigon [PLRA] umisela iimfuno zokudinwa, imiqathango yemali eqokelelwayo, kunye nomgaqo wesuti yokungxwelerheka kwengqondo okanye ngokweemvakalelo ngaphandle kokubonisa umonakalo ongokwasemzimbeni. Ukuzikhusela okuphezulu kubangela ukuba izinto zingakhuseleki kwii-mo ye-modelitiske enkundleni yombuso ngaphandle kokuba umlawuli wesilela usebenza. Amagosa asejele anokutshateka amagosa entolongo phantsi kowee iimfuno zonyango (ukungalawuleki kwemeko-mfezeko), kodwa kufuneka anikezele iziphumo zolawulo kuqala. Kwangoko, uninzi lumele lugcine ukhuseleko lwendlela yokuzithobeko, njengoko ii-slitep kunye nempahla zingasebenzi.

Imilinganiselo esezantsi edityanisiweyo ye- emiselwe ku- Estelle v. Gamble [77], ifuna ukuba umphathi azi kwaye angayinanzi umngcipheko omkhulu womonakalo. Le yibar ephezulu, kodwa xa idityanisiwe, isoyisa ukhuselo olufanelekileyo kuba umthetho umiselwe ngokucacileyo. Noko ke, urhulumente ngokwakhe uhlala ewukhusela ngaphandle kokuba umgaqo wemvume. Amanye amazwe, njengaseNew York, anomgonogoso okhuselwayo kwintelelo oluthile kwiNkundla yemithetho ye-Inters, kodwa isaziso nemiyalelo yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho i-project.

Iinkonzo zexesha likaxakeka

UMasipala kunye norhulumente wezongxamiseko-mlilo----Inkonzo ze-DSD yezonyango, amagcisa ongxamiseko, kunye namaqumrhu eempendulo yentlekele. Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela imimiselo yokhuseleko lokhuseleko longxamiseko ekhusela amasebe kunye namatshantliziyo angenankathalo, ngaphandle kokuba kuboniswe ukungakhathali okunzulu. Umzekelo, i-Emergincy Serviment Services Medical kumazwe ahlukeneyo afumana iimvavanyo ze-EMT ezikhoyo ngenxa yokungakhathalelwa okuqhelekileyo ekunikezeleni inkathalo. Ngaphezu koko, umsebenzi owehlazileyo okhethekileyo ojikelezayo [] ukuqinisekisa ukuba kukhusele izigqibo ezisoloko kusenziwa ngemeko ezifanelekileyo ezikhoyo okanye ukusabela kongxamiseko. Oku kwenza kube nzima kakhulu ngenxa yokuphumelela kweziphumo ezifanelekileyo.

Umahluko ophawulekayo ubandakanya ukuzibanga okuthi urhulumente waphula i- i-Activement’s Accessivement of Accelty Clause ngokusilela ukukhusela abantu kugonyamelo lwabucala. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambe abantu abanoDeshaney v. Winnebago County [1999] [i-i-Astyleective] urhulumente akawunamsebenzi wokukhusela abemi kwiingozi zabucala, ngaphandle kokuba “ulwalamano olukhethekileyo” lukho [umbutho okhoyo, abantu ngabanye okanye abaguli ababotshelelwe ngokubodwa). Oku kulawula imiqathango yokhuseleko yasesidlangala, ukhuseleko oluphezulu nokungabikho komGwal-omGrac.

Imisebenzi ecwangcisiweyo

Ibone ukuba kuntsonkothile kwaye kulula ukukhusela ulawulo, amagqwetha asingatha amatyala okhuseleko lukawonke-wonke kufuneka aphuhlise iindlela zobuchule zokwandisa amathuba okuchacha. Ezi ndlela zilandelayo zisetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo:

  • Ibonisa ummangalelwa ofanelekileyo: Kuphephe ukumangalela urhulumente okanye abameli bakarhulumente ngqo; endaweni yoko, gama ngamagosa ngamanye okanye amagosa kumsebenzi wawo wobuqu. Kumalungu kamasipala (iingingqi, iirejistamenti), phawula ukuba oomasipala abakhuselwanga ngumkhuseli wenkqubo yokuLayishwa kweshumi elinesixhenxe leshumi elinesixhenxe, bathathwa “ngamadoda" phantsi ko1998,* sona ityala likamasipala ngqo linokuba khona.
  • Funa uncedo olungenayo: Sebenzisa umahluko ex ee Young ukucela ukucelw'elwa okuqhubekayo okungaqhubekiyo kwemigaqo-siseko. Oku kuluncedo kakhulu kwiimeko zokulungisa amatyala okanye iipateni zamandla agqithisileyo, apho umyalelo wenkundla unganqanda ulwaphuko.
  • imeko yokuhlola i-tort yenza. Ummiselo ngamnye unezifunekayo zesizwe ezikhethekileyo, ezifana nesaziso sangaphambi kwe 90 kwiintsuku, iikeyiti zomonakalo, kunye nokungasetyenziswa kwetorts ngenjongo. Ukungafiki kwexesha elimisiweyo kungayi kubulala.
  • Cinga ngamatyala omgaqo-siseko wezwe: Icandelo 1983 lithi lifuna ukuthintelwa kolawulo lombuso kodwa lijonge ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo. Liqinisekise ukuba ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko ekungeneni imbambano lamiselwa ngokucacileyo ngexesha lokwaphulwa.
  • [[NKQUBO: 0] Ingqungquthela epheleleyo : Uphando ukuba umthetho wesizwe uyasebenza (umz., amaMelika anoMthetho wokukhubazeka, isiHloko VII, uMthetho wokuRehabilita) ugunyaziswe ngokusemthethweni ngokwee-brofastis zokhuseleko lolawulo lolawulo. INkundla ePhakamileyo inikele ukhokelo kwiimeko ezifana ne-Tenessee v. [[FLT] [[FLT] [FLT] [2004]) kumlinganiselo woko lwebrografti phantsi kweCandelo 5 loHlahlolo lwe-14.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nemigudu Yotshintsho

Ukuma kwemeko-bume yokuzikhusela kolawulo loburhulumente akumi ngamaxesha athile. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela umthetho omxinwa kwiintlobo ezithile zokhuseleko, ingakumbi ezo zibandakanya ugonyamelo lwamapolisa. Ngokomzekelo, iNdibano yaseKhalifoniya 252 (2020) yasusa imiqobo ethile ekuthetheni ngamalungelo abantu ngokumisela umda wokusetyenziswa kwezokhuselo olufanelekileyo njengenkuselo yenkundla yephondo. Ngokufanayo, iColorado neNew York iye yamisela imithetho eyenza kube lula ukugcina amapolisa kunye noomasipala benoxa benoxa ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwesizwe luhlala lungathintelwangangqubani.

Kumgangatho wesizwe, i- Justice Floyd Justice kuMthetho wePolicial ka-2021 waquka amalungiselelo okuphelisa ukuthintelwa komthetho ofanelekileyo kunye nokupheliswa kweCandelo lowe-1998 ukuze kuvunyelwe iisuti nxamnye noorhulumente ngokungqalileyo ngenxa yokuphulwa komgaqo-siseko. Nangona lo Mgaqo-siseko ungadluliswanga, ubonisa ukuhambela phambili kokuguqula umgangatho wenkqubo yolawulo kunye neemfundiso ezinxulumene nayo. Iinkundla zikwaqalisela ukuphinda umlinganiselo wokhuseleko lorhulumente kwiimeko ezibandakanya ubugcisa banamhlanje, njengokwazi ukuma kobuso kunye nogcino-lwazi, kodwa ukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke luhlala lukho.

Kwicala lejaji, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibonise utyekelo lokugcina ukhuseleko oluqinileyo lozikhusela kwimicimbi engokwasemthethweni. kumacala eSebe loKhuseleko loLuntu [202]), iNkundla yathi iTexas yaluthintela ukhuseleko lwayo ngokudibanisa i-Union phantsi “kwesicwangciso seNkqutyana” ingcamango, kodwa oku kunxaxhinekileyo kunciphile kwaye kulinganiselwe kumatyala abandakanya ukufumaneka kwemali okanye impahla yoluntu. Imithetho yakutshanje iqinisekisa imiqobo.

Kwabo banomdla kutshintsho, iphepha leOyez kwiTorres v. Texas linikezela ngesiqalo esiluncedo. Olunye ugcino luyi Brennan Center yengxelo yeJaji yengxelo yokhuselo oluphezulu kunye noxanduva lwamapolisa , exubusha ngeenguqu ezicetyiweyo zemithetho-mthetho.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwesizwe luhlala lungomnye wemiqobo eyoyikekayo ekuhlaziyweni kwemithetho yoluntu kumatyala okhuseleko lukawonke-wonke. Isekelwe kwimigaqo yomthetho ekudala ixhaswa yiMithetho eLandelayo kunye nemizekelo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ikhusela iminquba kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente ngaphandle kokuba inikwe imvume okanye isetyenziswa ngokukhethekileyo. Ngoxa iimfundiso ezifana neEx recete noRocept nobugrandmentalment zinika imigaqo ethile yoncedo, zimxinane yaye azinamdla ngokufumana ingxelo yemeko ekhoyo. AmaPlaintiff kunye namagqwethawe abo kufuneka bahambe kwisakhiwo esintlulo esinzima solawulo nomthetho ngaphandle kokuba kunikelwe okanye kusetyenziswa imvume esesikweni, iinjongo zesenzo, kunye neemeko ezifanelekileyo ze-athobaraliti. Ukufunwa kwabantu ngokubanziswa kwemithetho elungele ukuguquka kwemeko, ukutshintsha kokulungiswa kwamapolisa nokulungisa, kubiza izicelo ezifanelekileyo, kunye nokulungisa, kubandakanye ukubiza imvume eekileyo, ngenxa yemeko, kunye nokutshintsha