Imfundiso yokhuseleko oluphezulu lwezolawulo lwezikhundla zelizwe yimfundiso esekelwe ngokunzulu kumthetho waseMelika, esekelwe kumgaqo wokuba urhulumente olawulayo akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Le mfundiso ineziphumo ezinzulu kubantu abafuna ukuba nabadlali bakarhulumente . Ngokufana namagosa amapolisa, amagosa entolongo, okanye abalawuli bakarhulumente abanokubhaliswa ngokophula amalungelo abo. Ngoxa le mfundiso inikela ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo kubuncwane bukarhulumente kunye nobuchule bukarhulumente, ikwabangela imiqobo kubantu abajongele ekuqhubeni imigaqo-mthetho-siseko. Ukuqonda ukusetyenziswa komgangatho wokhuselo oluphezulu kunye namalungelo asekuhlaleni kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na owezo zonke izikhundla ezintlungela ukuchana kwelizwe ngokuchasene nezo eziburhulumente.

Isiseko soLawulo oluPhakamileyo lweRhulumente

Imvelaphi YoMthetho Wokwenziwa Komhlaba Weshumi Elinanye

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela kwesizwe ekuzimela ngokwaso eUnited States ilandela imvelaphi yayo esemthethweni esemthethweni kwiSinyuko seshumi elinesithoba, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1795. Ukulungisa yaba yimpendulo engqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [1793] kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. [Izigwebo] iGeorgia[[, apho iNkundla yamkela ukuba ummi wabucala umangalelwa kwinkundla yesizwe. Oorhulumente wakhawuleza wanyanzela ukutyhala umgaqo-siseko wezomthetho olawulayo. ISiphendumiso seshumi elinesitho sinikela: “Amandla e-Oliyedwa eUnited States akasayi kukhunjululwa nayiphi nayiphi na imfanelo okanye asemthethweni, okanye avinjwe ngokuchasene nomnye umgaqo wesizwe se-United States, okanye aviyoligityiswe ngurhulumente wase-Atlantine. [3]

Ingxaki Ebangela Ukungahambelani Kwemeko

Abaxhasi bokhuseleko olulawulayo baphikisa ngelithi ikhusela ubuncwane bukarhulumente ekuncipheni ngokumangalelwa ngasese, ivumela amazwe ukuba anike oovimba ngokweendawo eziphambili zemithetho endaweni yezigwebo zenkundla. Ikwagcina isidima kunye nenkululeko yamazwe alinganayo kwinkqubo karhulumente. Ngaphandle kokuzikhusela, amaziko anokunyanzeleka ukuba akhusele ukumangalelwa okungalinganiyo, nto leyo enokuthi ibangele ukuba angakwazi ukulawula. Noko ke, oku kungqubana okungundoqo nomgaqo owenzakalisayo obangelwa kukungatshatiswa ngurhulumente olinganayo kufanelwe linyathelo elifanelekileyo lokulungisa. Uxinezeleko phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente kunye namalungelo abantu ngabanye kwenza ubunzulu beemfazwe ezininzi zanamhlanje ezingokwasemthethweni.

Indlela IiNkxaso eziNcediswa ngayo namaLungelo aMasipala

Ingxaki Yokugxotha Oorhulumente Bakarhulumente Ngokungqalileyo

Xa amalungelo omntu ephulwa ngumbutho wesizwe, ngokomzekelo, urhulumente osebenzisa amandla agqithisileyo ngexesha lokubanjwa ``ithuku kukugweba umbutho karhulumente osebenzisa igosa. Noko ke, ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lubopha iisuti ngokuthe ngqo nxamnye norhulumente okanye amasebe akhe kwinkundla yesizwe. Oku kuthetha ukuba nokuba umlawuli womkhosi ufumene ukwaphulwa okucacileyo komgaqo-siseko, basenokungakwazi ukubuyisa umonakalo wemali emnqubeni karhulumente ngaphandle kokuba kusetyenziswe imvume ethile. Lo mqobo usoloko unyanzela ukuba abamangaleli-mthetho banyanzele ukuba babhekise kwiimeko zabo kwimimangaliso okanye oorhulumente basekuhlaleni.

Amagosa karhulumente azimeleyo kwiimfuno zawo ezisemthethweni.

Umahluko phakathi kokumangalela igosa elisemthethweni kumsebenzi walo osemthethweni ngokuchasene nowalo umbilini walo ngamnye unzima. Isuti yomthetho ephambili ingundoqo ikwisuti echasene nesizwe ngokwaso kwaye ithintelwe yiyo yonke imiqobo. Ngokwahlukileyo, isuti yegosa ngalinye ifuna ukubamba igosa elinegunya ngokobuqu elijongene nehambo yalo engekho mthethweni. Iisuti azithintelwanga ngolawulo oluphezulu kuba urhulumente, hayi urhulumente, ungumbutho wokwenene onomdla. Noko ke, iisuti zomkhosi ngamnye zisoloko zijongenemiqobo, njengokhuselo olufanelekileyo, olukhusela amagosa karhulumente kwityala loluntu ngaphandle kokuba amiselwe “ngokomthetho.. Ungqameko oluphezulu lokhuseleko oluphezulu nolulungeleyo lwezo lwezokhuselo lunokwenza umaleko onzima onokuthi ulwenze inkathalo enyameni.

Indima yama - 42 eUnited States ←

ICandelo loMbutho lamiselwa kuma-42.C.1901 njengenxalenye yoMthetho wamaLungelo ka-19871 ukulungiselela isicombululo sikarhulumente kubantu abamalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko aphulwayo “phantsi kombala womthetho karhulumente.” ICandelo lowe - 1983 aliwadali amalungelo angaphantsi komthetho karhulumente; linikela unobangela wokunyanzelisa amalungelo asele eqinisekisiweyo nguMgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho-rhulumente. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwimo yezolawulo yombuso karhulumente ka-198749 ayiwiswanga phantsi kweyayo. Jordan v., 440], 440 [49], ngoko ke, umhla ka-1901) umhla wama-1901, ishiye inqwelo-moto ephambili kulawulo lwawomntu ngamnye (i-ogrome). I-omatime) i-Othe .

Oyena Mxholo Ubalulekileyo Ovumela Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni Aqhubekeke

Phezu kwalo nje umgangatho obanzi womzimba ozinzileyo, iindidi eziliqela ezimiselweyo zivumela ukuba amalungelo abantu aqhubekele phambili kubadlali bakarhulumente. Ukuqonda le ngxaki kubalulekile kubasebenzi namagqwetha afuna okusesikweni.

I-Waiver KaRhulumente

Urhulumente angavuma ngokuzithandela ukumangalelwa, ngaloo ndlela ekhulula imiqathango efana nemiyalelo yokhuseleko loburhulumente. Umzekelo, i-Tort Act ivumela urhulumente ukuba alwe nemithetho ethile echaphazelekayo. Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela izicelo zokuzithethelela ukuba uthintelo lwemiqathango ethile, kuquka ukwaphula amalungelo abantu, okunokusikelwa imiqathango efana nesohlwayo kunye nomonakalo wemingxube. Umzekelo, i-Tort Acts Act ivumela iisutiss nxamnye nemithetho ethile echasene nemisebenzi ethile yabasebenzi bawo, kodwa i-ravever isoloko ibhinqithayo kunemithetho echaza amalungelo abantu. U-Atlaff umele awuhlolisise ngenyameko umthetho wezwe ukuba uyakwazi ukugqiba ukuba umlawuli ochaphaze. Ngokuqhelekileyo, iinkundla ezikholisayo ngokungqongqo kwiinjongo zemeko, okanye iintsingiselo ezingaqondakaliyo zemithetho-ombreji.

Ukuhlaziywa kweNkcubeko ngaphantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda we-14

UMgaqo-siseko unika iNkundla amandla okunyanzelisa uLawulo lweNkqutyana lweshumi elinesine lokukhupha uMthetho ofanelekileyo "umthetho ofanelekileyo” phantsi kweCandelo 5. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathi iNkundla ikho inokuthi ukukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe oluzimeleyo xa ichaza ngokucacileyo injongo yayo yokwenza oko, naxa umthetho ululawulo olusemthethweni lwamandla asebenzayo eCandelo 5. Umzekelo, [FLT]]. [FRITPARTY] v.[AML] VML], i-UMLS.[4], iNkuqinisekisa ukuba iNkumbuso i-Onkela i-onkela i-IIIII yenzelela i-'act.[5] Ngokunjalo, i-AD.[54]

Imfundiso Ethi Epheleleyo Engumntwana

Enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo ezichaseneyo nokhuseleko oluphezulu yi- imfundiso engaziwayo ye-Ex encinane , ebizwa emva kwetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ex edibene noMncinci [, 209 U.S 123. Le mfundiso ivumela amagosa athelekelelwayo akhangele phambili amagosa karhulumente ngokuchasene nomthetho wesizwe. Iphulwa ngumthetho onegunya likarhulumente owenziwe ngokungekho mthethweni ophunyezwe igunya lakhe okanye igunya lakhe elisemthethweni, ngoko ke afanelwe yimfanelo. Phantsi kwamalungelo eenkqubo asetyenziswayo angekho mthethweni. [[FLT] Inxalenye encinci , ipesenti yegosamgane yemvume yegunya lomthetho ekumiseni umthetho wokuphelisa umthetho.

Ukusetyenziswa Koorhulumente Noorhulumente Bendawo

Omnye umahluko obalulekileyo nguwo ophakathi koorhulumente belizwe noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Monell v. Isebe leeNkonzo zoNtlalo[FT:1], 436 U.S. 658 [1888], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yale mimandla ikholelwa ukuba oomasipala kunye namanye amaqumrhu orhulumente bakwimeko “amadoda” afanele afanele angene phantsi kwe-1901 1983. Ukhuselo oluPhezulu alunanto kubume, okanye kwiibhodi zesikolo ngenxa yokuba angengoozwilakhe. Endaweni yoko, oorhulumente basekuhlaleni banokubekwa ityala ngenxa yokuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu xa iziphumo zomthetho, isiko, okanye (ngokufunyaniswe (ngokufuthiweyo kubizwa ukuba ) okanye ukuqeqeshwa okungalungisi kuxhonywa, okanye ukupheka kwendlela ephantsi kwemithetho ephantsi yezonwayo. , ngokokungabokutsho kwetyala kwesixeko esiphezulu ngenxa yezenzo solwaphulo-mthetho, okanye ukusetyenziswa kweso sigunyaziso somthetho, xa sithe sivunywa yimeko ekufuneka siphe

Uphuhliso lwale Nkundla iPhakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo iyaqhubeka ilawula imida yokuzikhusela ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu.

Allen v. Cooper (2020) kunye neZibalo zoMbhalo

Act en. Allen v. Cooper, 140 S. Ct. 994 (2020), iNkundla yaqwalasela ukuba iNkundla ibonise ukuba iNkundla imo emiselwe ngokusemthethweni isomelelo solawulo lobumgunyathi ngokusemthethweni kwinkqubo yokwaphula umthetho osemthethweni yokuchasa imigaqo-mthetho phantsi kwe-Remedigity Claritification Act. Imodenti yeNtlangathathiwe yeme yaseNtlangathal imaphu yophulo ngaphandle kwemvume. Inkundla yacinga ukuba ukurhoxiswa kwemithetho epheleleyo yokulwa kwemithetho elawulayo i-Rhulumente efuna ukuthethelela ukukhutshwa kweQumrhu eliphantsi kweCandelo kufuneka ifakwe “ebhurenti nomlinganiselo ophezulu we-eamgalelo. INkugqiba iziphumo zentengo-ok

Torres . Madrid (2021) noMkhosi ongaphaya komlinganiselo

[ . Madrid, 141 S. Ct. 989 (2021), iNkundla yathetha ngengcaciso ye- “asizero” phantsi koMphetho-Mda wesine kumongo wesindululo esigqithisileyo esichasene namagosa amapolisa. Abaphathi-mikhosi badubula imoto ngexesha lokusukela, kodwa baqhuba imoto, kodwa kamva bafuna uncedo lwamayeza. Inkundla yathi ukusetyenziswa kwegosa-mikhosi kubonakalisa ukuphazanyiswa kwamandla omzimba kwanokuba uthe waphuma. Ngelixa ityala lithetha ngokuyintloko ngeempawu zoMbetho-Gqikelelo wesi-Mdabini, ibonisa indlela i-mfonoshela nganye phantsi kwemidabi ye-edemo. Ukulawula okunyuselweyo kwamagosa amapolisa, ngokukodwa ngenxa yakubambalelwa, umbalelwa ngamapolisa.[Fogl][2][3]

Ezinye Izigqibo Ezifanelekileyo

INkundla ikwathetha ngokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu kumongo weenkqubo zikarhulumente. KwiNkundla yeTaxila yeKharthe yase California v. Hyatt, 139 S. 1485 (2011), iNkundla ijongene nomgaqo wokukhusela ukunqanda ukunqanda ukuthintelwa kwempahla ngeendawo ezizimeleyo kubantu abakwinkundla zamazwe angaphandle. [[FLT] isigqibo esivalela amatyala anokuba yi-parftiff afuna ukukhokelwa yilizwe lasemzini. Okunye, [kunye, ku-[FLT:]] [2] i-Umthetho othelela ukunikezela kwe-Rhulumenter-go (ulk'om).[FFFoff] okanye unikezelo olukhoyo lweNkugqibelelo olukhoyo (2011]).[5]

Izicwangciso Ezisebenzisekayo Zezilwanyana Ezincinane Neeattorney

Ibone ubuntlola bokuzikhusela kolawulo, abathathi-nxaxheba kufuneka basondele kumalungelo abantu achasene nabadlali belizwe. Okokuqala, soloko uchaza ukuba ummangalelwa uyinto ekhoyo yesizwe, umphathi wesizwe kumandla awo asemthethweni, umphathi worhulumente kumsebenzi wakhe, okanye urhulumente wommandla. Impendulo ithetha ukuba yintoni esebenzayo. Okwesibini, funa ukukhululeka okunokwenzeka nangangoko [[FLT:] uEx inxalenye ye-Young [ukuthi oku kumandla abo asemthethweni, igosa-gosa-gosa-gosa-gosa-gosa-gosa. Okwesithathu, ukuba kufuneka ilahleko yemali, iqwalasele ukubiza amagosa ngamanye amalungelo awo kwaye ingqina ukuba asebenza phantsi kombala womthetho. Owesine, nokuba uphandoqo lwezwe ngokwendlela okanye olunye uxwebhu, uxwebhu oluchaphaneyo, oluchaphazelele ngomthetho, okanye olusemthethweni olufuna ukusetyenziswa ngumthetho. [FFOct.]

Attorney kufuneka aqonde kwakhona iimfuno zokuncenga ezisebenza kwinkundla yorhulumente. Isikhalazo kufuneka sichaze isiqinisekiso esifanelekileyo sokukhululeka kwaye sichaze ngokucacileyo ubuchule obungathethwa ngabo ummangalelwa ngamnye. Ukusilela ukucacisa kungakhokelela ekugxothweni. Ngaphezu koko, khumbula ummiselo wemiqathango ethintelweyo (ngokuyinyani) iminyaka emithathu ye-63, kodwa iwotshi iqala ngokuchasene nohlobo lomonakalo. Ekugqibeleni, qwalasela ukubakho kwemithetho yenkundla elawulayo. Ukhuselo oluphakamileyo alusoloko lusebenza kwiinkundla zelizwe kumlinganiselo ofanayo nakwiinkundla zolawulo; amanye amazwe aneenkcazelo ezandilisekileyo okanye iinkcazelo ezahlukeneyo. Noko ke, iNkuNkundla ePhakade ikholelwa ukuba imivalo ye-11 ithetha ngokuchasene nenkundla ye-A1 yezomthetho ngaphandle kwemvume yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho. [FLT] [5],[5]

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwesizwe luhlala lungumqobo omkhulu kubantu abafuna ukuhlawulelwa amalungelo amakhaya awenziwe ngabasebenzi bephondo. Le mfundiso, esekelwe kwiSigqibo seshumi elinesine soMphetho-mva nenkulungwane zomthetho oqhelekileyo, ikhusela ubuncwane bombuso kunye nobuchule bukarhulumente, kodwa isenokuwashiya amaxhoba ngaphandle konyango. Kodwa ke, amaxhoba angaphandle , ukuhlaziywa kombutho, [[FL: 0] i-Exte Young [[FLT:] imfundiso, kunye , kunye nekhono lokukhokelwa kwe-oomasipala, kunye nokunganyanzeleka kwendlela esesikweni. Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkuNkuhla ziyaqhubeka zicombulula le midalingo, maxa wambi zikhula kwaye zifumana umlinganiselo wokhuselo. [kungangoorhulumente othe kratya urhulumente ohlukeneyo] [FFoff], ulawulo oluthe lwabiwo-odwa lweNt.[2]