Iliwa Lokusesikweni: Indlela Iinkundla Eziwuguqula Ngayo Umbutho Woluntu

Ukusuka kwimiqathango ephantsi evalwayo encinane engoonobumba abalawula imigaqo elawulayo etshintshayo ekhuselayo, iinkundla zimi njengemibutho ephambili yolawulo lobulungisa. Ayizozindawo nje zokuphikisana; yi-injini esebenzayo yomthetho, apho imigaqo engekho ngqiqweni ivavanywayo echasene neengxabano zabantu. Inkundla esebenzayo yeyona ingqina ethembekileyo yesigxina, amalungelo ajonge ibutho labantu. Kodwa ke, azizibonelela ngokupheleleyo izinto ezenziwa ziinkundla, kwaye kutheni imicimbi yazo ithathelwe ngaphandle kweengcango zenkundla zenkundla yenkundla. Eli nqaku linikela uvavanyo olunzulu lweenkundla zemisebenzi emininzi, ukusuka ekuxazululeni imigaqo-nkqubo kawonke, kwaye lichaza isizathu sokuba ukuzimela kwazo zifanelekele kwii-demodemokhn.

Isiseko Seenkundla

Iinkundla zisebenza njengendlela esemthethweni yokulawula isigqibo esinegunya sokuxambulisana kunye nokutolikwa komthetho. Ziyalingana, amasebe azimeleyo karhulumente kwiinkqubo ezininzi zedemokhrasi, zibekwa ityala lokuhlola amandla owiso-mthetho kunye nesebe elilawulayo. Igunya lawo alifumaneki ngokunyanzeleka kodwa ekuthembeni kwabantu ekungakhethi buso nakukungakhethi buso. Imisebenzi engundoqo inokuhlanganiswa ibe zintsika ezine ezidityanisiweyo: ukuphikisana nesigqibo, ukutolikwa komthetho, ukunyaniswa kwamalungelo, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwentlalo-ntle. Intsika nganye iqinisa abanye, idala isakhelo esine sokusesikweni.

Inkululeko Yomthetho Njengomncono

Phambi kokuhlola ukuba zeziphi iinkundla do, kubalulekile ukuqonda indlela ezilungiselelwe ngayo. Ukuzimela ngokwamajaji . Oku kuthetha ukuba abagwebi bakhululekile kwingcinezelo yangaphandle, ingakumbi kumasebe ezobupolitika, lityele lembombo. Ngaphandle kwale nkululeko, iinkundla ziba zizixhobo zikarhulumente kunokuba zibe ngabakhuseli babantu. Le nkululeko ikhuselwa kubomi babo bonke okanye ixesha elide, ikhusele intlawulo, kunye nemiyalelo kwiimpembelelo zangaphandle. iCode yeNkqulo yaBagwebi beUnited States ngokucacileyo ifuna abagwebi ukuba baxhase ingqibelelo kunye nokuzizimele kwenkululeko yabo bonke abakwizenzo.

Isisombululo sempikiswano: Ukusuka kwiQuarels yabuQoqo ukuya ekuphenduleni

Umsebenzi obonakalayo weenkundla kukucombulula iimbambano. Le nkqubo inika inkqubo ecwangcisiweyo, esekelwe kubungqina ukuthatha indawo yoncedo lwako ngokwakho, ukuziphindezela, okanye ukulumka. Ngokumela ungquzulwano, iinkundla ziguqula ukungavisisani okukrwada kube ziziphumo ezibophelelekileyo ezisemthethweni, ezixhaswa ngamandla ancedisayo karhulumente. Isigqibo seDiffate sithatha iindlela ezahlukeneyo ngokuxhomekeke kwindlela eliyiyo icala.

Umthetho wasekuhlaleni: Okusesikweni phakathi kweMithetho Yamaqumrhu

Amatyala asekuhlaleni abandakanya abantu abazimeleyo .Imeko zamakhaya zibandakanya amaqela azimeleyo .[FULD:0] ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango enjengeyomonakalo yemali, imiqathango, okanye umsebenzi othile okhethekileyo. Imizekelo iquka ukwaphulwa kwesivumelwano, iingxelo zomonakalo womntu ngamnye, iimbambano zempahla, kunye neengxelo ze-inshorensi. I-li-inshorensi ithwala umthwalo wokuqinisekisa ukuchanazelwa kobungqina obuthi [[[FLT:]] [iiiiiiiiindlela] zokubonisa ukuba oko kuthethwa kunokwenzeka kuyinyaniso kakhulu kunokungabikho. Iinkundla zamakhaya azithathi-nxaxheba phantsi kwemeko zezoqoqosho kunye neenkundla zezentlalo-onkqu zasekuhlaleni, ziyakwazi ukuphumelela ukufunyanwa, ukulawulwa kweminyanzelela, ukulawulwa kweminyanze imicimbi yanamhlanje, intengiso yezentengiso.

Ukwaphula umthetho: Urhulumente uyakwazi ukubulala umntu ngamnye

Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente umangalela umntu ngokophula umthetho okuthiwa kungumntu ophule izigwebo, kuquka ukuvalelwa entolongweni, ukuhlawuliswa, ukugwetywa, okanye kwezinye iindawo. Indima yenkundla apha ikhusela ngokusisiseko: iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko ommangalelwa, ukuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza, ukujamelana namangqina, ukukhululeka ekunyanzelweni ekucinezeleni ukunyanzelweni kwetyala, ukuvalelwa kwetyala, okanye ukuthotyelwa kwetyala. Umgangatho wobungqina, ugqithisa ukuthandabuza [[[FLT: 1], ungowona uphakamileyo owaziwayo emthetho, ukubonisa ubunzulu bomenzi wenkululeko. Iinkundla zokuzigweba (ukuboza okanye ibhetshi), okanye ukugweba okuqhelekileyo, ukuqinisekisa iinkundla ezingonwayo.

Iimpikiswano ezikhethekileyo

Iinkqubo ezininzi zenkundla ziye zadala amacandelo akhethekileyo ukusingatha iindidi eziphinda-phindwayo zempikiswano ngokunempumelelo. Ezi ziquka:

  • Iinkundla zosapho ezisingatha uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nogonyamelo lwasekhaya.
  • Iprobate kunye neenkundla zelizwe zokuvelela iziqinisekiso, ukuthembeka, kunye neenqanawa zokukhusela.
  • iinkundla zeBankiptacy ulawula ukukhulula okanye ukulungiswa kwamatyala ngexa ukhusela amalungelo omtyala.
  • Iinkundla zolawulo izibheno ezivela kwizindululo zombutho karhulumente ezingezingenelo, imvume, kunye nokuthobela ulawulo.

Oku kubekwa kolwazi ngokukhethekileyo kuvumela abagwebi ukuba bahlakulele ubuchule obunzulu nokusingatha amatyala ngokukhawuleza, kuphucule ukufikelela kokusesikweni.

Enye iNkqutyana-mali (ADR) nendima yeNkundla

Iinkundla zikhuthaza ukuhlaziywa, ukuququzelelwa, kunye novavanyo lokuqala lobundilele lokusombulula iimbambano ngaphandle kwetyala elipheleleyo. Imithetho emininzi yenkundla ifuna amaqela ukuzama ukuzama ukuvavanya phambi kokuvavanywa kwetyala. Ngelixesha i-ADR inciphisa uxinzelelo lwedokisi, iinkundla zigcina indima yolawulo: zinganyanzelisa izivumelwano zokuhlalisa, iibhaso zokwalathisa ezifunyenwe ngokuqhatha okanye ucalucalulo, kwaye zimise imida esemthethweni apho i-ADR isebenza khona. [[FLT:] Umbinitel Bank Bar unika oovimba abaphezulu kwezi nkqubo zenkundla-ADR.

Ukucaciswa koMthetho nophuhliso

Ngaphandle kokulungisa amatyala ngamanye, iinkundla zidlala indima enzima yokuyila umthetho ngokwawo. Ngenkqubo yokutolika, abagwebi banika intsingiselo kwimimiselo edidayo, ukuzalisa izithuba kumthetho, nokuxolelanisa imithetho engqubanayo. Lo msebenzi ubalulekile kuba abenzi bomthetho abanakuxela kwangaphambili zonke iimeko zexesha elizayo.

Inkcazelo yesiseko: Ukufunda iQinisekiso loMgaqo-siseko

Xa ulwimi lomthetho lungacacanga, iinkundla zisebenzisa uluhlu olumiselweyo lolwakhiwo. Zingakhangela kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yamagama, imbali yowiso-mthetho, umongo obanzi womthetho, okanye injongo eyayilwa ukuba isebenze. Iindlela zokutolika ziyahluka--tshintsha ngezantsi kwemibhalo, i-purpositism, okanye i-pragmaticism (kodwa yonke injongo yokusebenzisa umthetho njengowiso lwemithetho. Imiqathango yelizwe efana ne Brown v. Board yemfundo[[FLT:] [1954]]) ibonakalisa indlela iinkundla ezinokuchaza ngayo ulwimi olubanzi olusemthethweni ukuze ziqhube inkqubela phambili, ngoxa zibonisa imidalo yegunya lokugweba xa kuxhathisa kwezobupolitika.

Isalathisi sokulinganisa kunye nenkqubo ephambili

Umgaqo we- umisela iziphumo ezifanayo. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zibotshelelwe ngezigqibo eziphezulu kulawulo olunye. Inkundla ye-U.S. ifuna ukuba ilandele imithetho yamaxesha angaphambili kwimiba efanayo esemthethweni. Le mfundiso ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, kunye nokulingana phambi komthetho. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zibotshelelwe ngezigqibo eziphezulu kummandla omnye. Iinkundla eziphezulu zibotshelelwe ngokwezigqibo eziphezulu. Inkundla ephakamileyo yenkundla i-U. S. ikhohlo ithetha ngezihlandlo ezingaphezulu kwezakhetho zayo (umz., [[FLT:]]Obergefell v. Hodm.[FLT]] ] ibonakalisa ukuba uvalelo lwezomtshato oluphezulu lungagqibekanga; xa ikhupha izigwebo ezifanelekileyo, kodwa zifuna ukuphumelela, kodwa ke.

Ingxubusho Yezogwebo: Ukukhangela Amandla Karhulumente

Mhlawumbi amandla amakhulu okuchaza luhlolo lomthetho, olugunya lokuvakalisa imimiselo, imimiselo, okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingekho semthethweni. Imvelaphi kwityala le-U.S. Marbury v. Madison [183] [i-183], eli gunya lenza iinkundla zibe ngabalawuli bokuphela kwentsingiselo yesiseko somgaqo-siseko. Alinasiphelo; iinkundla zisebenzisa inkqumrhu, kodwa zisebenzisa inkqubela-mthetho, ngokuqhelekileyo zibhekisa kwindlu yowiso-mthetho. Noko ke, iinkundla zejajiyo zezomthetho zinika amandla okubetha imithetho echasene namalungelo asisiseko okanye igunya likarhulumente. I-JUPUPUPU.[FUPUPU.]

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo Nabantu Ngabo Bonke

Iinkundla zingunobangela wokugqibela wabantu abamalungelo abo asongelwa kukuphangwa ngurhulumente, igunya lenkampani, okanye ucalucalulo lwabucala. Lo msebenzi wokukhusela ubaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kumaqela angenalo igunya kwezobupolitika ukuze akhuseleke ngomthetho. Amalungelo akhuselwe ngezenzo zokugweba aquka:

ISebe leMigaqo-siseko namalungelo abantu

Umgaqo-siseko wale mihla kunye nezivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe ziqinisekisa uludwe olubanzi lwamalungelo, inkululeko yonqulo, ukuzimela, ukulingana, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nenkululeko yokuthuthunjiswa, phakathi kwezinye. IiNkundla ezimanyumnyezi zithi la malungelo aphulwe. Umzekelo, iNkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu iziva izicelo zabantu abakwimimandla engama- 46 yamalungu aphazamisa iNgqungquthela yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu. Ngokufanayo, iinkundla eziphakamileyo zesizwe (iNkuNkundla ePhakathi yeMigaqo-siseko yaseMzantsi Afrika) zivelise iNkulwano yeNkundla eMgaqo-siseko weSizwelo eMgaqo-siseko eMgaqo-siseko weMigaqo-siseko ikhusela amalungelo entlalo engokoqoqo lezentlalo, ukukhusela amalungelo eentlalo, ukukhusela ulawulo lwezempilo olufana nemfundo lwamalungu, ulawulo lwezempilo, kunye nemfundo.

Inkqubela kunye nobuLungisi obuPhakamileyo

Iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente ezichaphazela abantu ngabanye — ukusukela ekurhoxiseni imvume yokuqhuba imoto. Icala lokugxotha i-'partment' engeyo-injini'i- iprocedrogration inkqubo efanelekileyo[[. Oku kuthetha ukuba isaziso esaneleyo, ithuba lokuviwa phambi komenzi wezigwebi ongenamkhethe, kunye nesigqibo sokuqiqa. Ilungelo lokucebisa kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho (]Gideon v. Wainwright[, 1963]) yinkqubo engundoqo yokukhuselwa ngokufanelekileyo yinkundla. Ngaphandle kokungamela okusesikweni, abameli borhulumente bangenza ngendlela engekho mthethweni.

Impahla namalungelo ezoqoqosho

Iinkundla zikwakhusela amalungelo empahla yobuqu ekuthatyathweni okungekho mthethweni (ummandla ophantsi ngaphandle kwembuyiselo nje kuphela), ukuphazanyiswa kwempahla yengqondo, nokuncitshiswa kwempahla ngokungekho mthethweni. Ezi zixhobo zidala imekobume elungileyo efunekayo kwingeniso, ulwakhiwo, kunye nokwanda kwezoqoqosho. I-FUDING Commercial Code (UCC), esetyenziswa kwiphondo ngalinye lase-U., itolikwa kwaye inyanzelwa ziinkundla ukulawula imicimbi yentengiso ngokutyibilikayo.

Ukulondoloza Ulungelelwano Loluntu Nentembelo Yoluntu

Ukuhlala kwazo kuthintela ukuziphatha okubi, kunika umjelo woxolo wezikhalazo, kunye nemiqondiso yokuba okusesikweni /akunakulawula.

Ukuchaswa Ngesohlwayo Nokusetyenziswa Kwamakhaya

Xa iinkundla zimisela izigwebo zolwaphulo-mthetho okanye iimali ezonakeleyo, zithumela umyalezo kuluntu ngokubanzi ukuba ukwaphula umthetho kuphumele iziphumo. Ngoxa iziphumo zokuthintela ziphikisana neengcali zetyala, kukho ubungqina obunamandla bokuba uqinisekiso oluqinisekisiweyo [ lwesohlwayo luthintela izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Iinkundla zikwanyanzela imiqathango yokuphelisa umonakalo oqhubekayo, ukunikeza uncedo olukhawulezileyo.

Ukungavisisani nokuwohloka koxolo lwentlalo

Ngokunikela ipropati esesikweni, engenamkhethe, umjelo wenkundla uchasene nogonyamelo lwabucala okanye isiphithiphithi sentlalo. Kwanaxa amaqela engaphumeleli, ukufaneleka kwale nkqubo kusoloko kuwakhokelela ekubeni amkele iziphumo, alondoloze uxolo lwengingqi. Iimpikiswano zezobupolitika eziphezulu-profile .ukusuka kucelomngeni lonyulo ukuya kuxanduva oluthi ekugqibeleni lugqitywe enkundleni, nto leyo encedayo ekuthinteleni ukuxambulisana kwamandla ongezelelweyo.

Ukuba Ngumgwebi Okufuziselayo Nomthetho

Iinkundla zikwasebenza umsebenzi womfuziselo: zimisela intsingiselo yokuba akukho mntu ungaphezulu komthetho. Xa iinkokeli, imibutho, okanye izilangazelelo ezinamandla zibekwa ityala enkundleni, ukuthembana kukawonke-wonke kwinkqubo kuyaqiniswa. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, xa iinkundla zijongwa njengezingonakeleyo, eziqhagamileyo, okanye ezingafikelelekiyo, ulungelelwano lwentlalo luyawohloka. Umthetho weSigqeba soMthetho wehlabathi [ ubonakalisa ngokuqhubekayo ukuba amazwe anemigangatho yezomthetho eqinileyo anandipha amanqanaba oxolo nophuhlisoqoqosho.

Ukwakhiwa Kweenkqubo Zeenkundla Zanamhlanje

Ukuzalisekisa le misebenzi, iinkundla zilungelelaniswe kwizakhiwo zemigangatho ephakamileyo zenzelwe ukulinganisa ugqibelo, ukuchana nokufikelela.

Iinkundla Zokuchophela Ityala: Isigwebo Esicacileyo

Iinkundla zamatyala zilapho ziqala khona. Ziintendelezo ezilawulayo, intsingiselo ziva ubungqina okwesihlandlo sokuqala, zifumana izibakala, zisebenzisa umthetho. Kwinkqubo yephondo lase-U.S., iinkundla zesithili ziinkundla zokuvavanya jikelele; amaphepha ngokufanayo azithiya iinkundla zokuvavanya (umz., iiNkundla eziPhakamileyo, iiNkundla zeNtlanganiso). Amatyala asenokuba phambi kwejaji (ukuvavanywa) okanye ijaji; abachopheli-mthetho bafumana izibakala, kwaye imiqathango emininzi yetyala ayize iye ekuchongweni.

IiNkundla eziphandayo eziXhoba uThungelwano: Ukukhangela Kwimpazamo

Amaqela aphulukana nale ngxaki anelungelo lokubhenela kwinkundla ephakathi. Ezi nkundla aziwavavanyi amatsha; zihlola irekhodi yenkundla yamatyala yeempazamo ezisemthethweni", imiyalelo yokugweba ngokungafanelekanga, ukuvunywa kobungqina obungafanelekanga, ukusetyenziswa komthetho okuphosakeleyo. Umgangatho wokwenza uhlolo uyahluka: imibuzo yomthetho iyacaciswa de novo (ntsha), ngoxa iziphumo zezibakala zihlaziywa ngempazamo ecacileyo. Iinkundla ze-intermediaste appelllate zinika umnatha obalulekileyo, zilungisa iimpazamo ngaphambi kokuba zibe zokugqibela.

Iinkundla Eziphakamileyo Negunya Lokugqibela

Kwincopho kukho iinkundla eziphakamileyo (okanye iinkundla eziphakamileyo, iinkundla eziphakamileyo zeenkqubano zokugqibela). Beva ukhetho olusemthethweni lwezibheno ezinika imibandela ebalulekileyo, engokomGaqo-siseko, okanye iimfazwe phakathi kweenkundla ezisezantsi. Izigqibo zabo zibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla ezincinci eziphantsi ekulawuleni kwazo. Kwinkqubo zikarhulumente, inkundla enye ephakamileyo (umz., iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseInkundle yaseIntendelezo yaseIndiya) iqinisekisa ukulingana komthetho kulo lonke ilizwe. Izibuko elisikelwe liphela (e) izihlandlo ezili-100 ukuya kumatyala ali-100 ngonyaka e-U.S.

Iinkundla Ezikhethekileyo Nezezizwe Ngezizwe

Iinkqubo zobulungisa zale mihla zikwaquka iinkundla ezikhethekileyo (irhafu, imvume, indalo) kunye neenkundla zezizwe ngezizwe. INkundla yezizwe ngezizwe yeJaji ilungisa iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe, ngoxa iNkundla yezeNtlanganiso yeZizwe Ngezizwe igweba abantu ngokutshatyalaliswa kohlanga, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho oluchasene noluntu.

Iingxaki Ezijamelene Neenkundla Zexesha Elidluleyo

Phezu kwayo nje indima yazo eyintloko, iinkundla zijamelana neengcinezelo eziphawulekayo ezinokudodobalisa ukuphumelela kwazo.

  • Izakhono zenqanawa ezilayishwe ngaphezulu zibangela ukulinda iminyaka emininzi, ukukhanyela okusesikweni kwabangenamali yokulinda.
  • Access kubulungisa: Ixabiso eliphezulu lelitha lishiya abantu abaninzi kunye namashishini amancinane ngaphandle kokumela okusemthethweni, ingakumbi kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni. Iinkundla zizama ukuzama amaziko oncedo lwazo, iinkqubo ezenziwe lula, kunye nengxubusho ye-intanethi ukuvala umsantsa.
  • Inkcazo ephindaphindiweyo yeBias: imboniso yokuhlahlela okubonisa ukususwa kwecala ngokweembono zeenkundla, ingakumbi kwizigqibo eziphezulu ze-profile. Ukubuyiselwa kokuthembana kufuna iinkqubo ezikhanyayo, ukunyanzelisa imilinganiselo yokuziphatha, kunye nezihlalo ezahlukeneyo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukungavumelani kwezenzululwazi: Ukubonisa, ukuva, uphando olusemthethweni oluncedisiweyo, kunye nobungqina bamanani buveza amathuba kunye nomngcipheko. Iinkundla kufuneka ziqhelane ngexesha zigcina okusesikweni nokhuseleko.

Isiphelo: Iinkundla Njengezigada Zomthetho

Iinkundla zingaphezulu kakhulu kuneefekta eziphikisanayo ngokulungisa; ngabalondolozi bomGaqo-siseko abanika ubomi kumalungelo, abanobutyala begunya, kwaye banikela indlela yoxolo yokuguqula intlalo-ntle. Umsebenzi wabo wokutolika umthetho nokuphuhlisa imizekelo ilolonga intsingiselo ecacileyo yokusesikweni kwizizukulwana ngezizukulwana. Nangona kungekho nkqubo yenkundla igqibeleleyo, ukuzinikela kwisivumelwano sokungacaluli, ukwenza izigqibo ezicaciweyo, kunye nokuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho kuhlala kusesona sikhuselo silungileyo ekulweni nesiphithiphithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-phithi. Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo ngokuzintlukwano, kwaye zixhasa ukuzimela kwazo, kwaye zingumsebenzi womdlalo - ngokukhululekile.