Utshintsho lwelizwe eIndiya luye lwadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni ubume bentlalo-ntle yelizwe. Olu tshintsho lufuna ukucombulula ukungalingani okunzulu kwelizwe, ukuchitha izakhiwo zelifa lesizwe, nokukhuthaza ukusasazwa komhlaba ngokulinganayo phakathi kwabemi basemaphandleni. Ukuqonda iinkalo ezisemthethweni ezisemva kwezi nguqu kubalulekile ekuqondeni iziphumo zazo, iingxaki abajamelana nazo, kunye nemigudu eqhubekayo yokucoca umgaqo wesakhiwo somthetho. Umqolo osemthethweni weenguqu zelizwe . //ukudibanisa imimiselo yemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho, kunye neenkcazelo zomthetho, kwaye .[1] Eli nqaku lilungiselela uhlolo olubanzi lwemiqathangozo mhlaba wotshintsho eIndiya, ukuqwalasela imvelaphi yawo, ukuhlolisisa inkquluko yomthetho, nokuhlola imiqobo eqhubekayo yezomthetho, kunye neziphuhlisomthetho eziqhubekayo.

Imvelaphi Yamazwe Einguqulelo EIndiya

Phambi kokuzimela ngokwayo, isakhiwo se-Indiya sokuphatha i-grarian saphawulwa ngokugquma kakhulu umlinganiselo welizwe phantsi kwendlela ezahlukeneyo `izamindari, i-ryotwari, kunye ne-mahalwari''. kunye nodidi lwayo lomphathi owakhupha irente kubalimi. Ulawulo lwamakoloni lwayigcina kakhulu le mirhumo, iqokelelo yemali kubulungisa bentlalo-ntle. Ilizwe lalisoloko ligcinwe ngabanini-mali abangekhoyo, ngelixa abalimi belona lungelo lilinganiselwe okanye kungekho lungelo phezu komhlaba ababewulima. Oku kwadala inkqubo exhaphaza kakhulu eyagcina umgangatho wobuhlwempuzelo.

Emva kokuzimela geqe, urhulumente wase-Indiya wachaza utshintsho lomhlaba njengesiseko esingundoqo sokuguqula intlalo kunye nezoqoqosho. Isicwangciso sokuqala sonyaka wesihlanu (1951-56) sachaza ngokucacileyo ukuba utshintsho lomhlaba lwalubalulekile ekunyuseni imveliso yezolimo nokukhuthaza ubulungisa bentlalo. Ucwangciso lweziguquko luquka iinxalenye ezintathu ezingundoqo:

  • Ukufumaneka kwamaqumrhu aphakathi (amazaminde, iijagirdars, njalo njalo) ukwenza imeko idibane ngqo nabalimi.
  • [[UTL:0] utshintsho olugqithisileyo ukunikezela ngokhuseleko lwentlawulo kunye nokulawula iirente.
  • Umthetho wesilingi somhlaba wokusasaza umhlaba oseleyo phakathi kwabangenamhlaba.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuqinisa ulwahlulo lwemiqheba ukunyusa ukusebenza kakuhle.

Umatshini osemthethweni wezi nguqulelo kwakufuneka wakhelwe ukusuka ekukrazukeni. Iimeko ezininzi ezimisela imithetho yokuphelisa i-zaminali, ngokufuthi ekhokelela kwilixa elithe kratya. Abaququzeli bomGaqo-siseko baqonda imfuneko yokukhusela le mithetho yotshintsho kucelomngeni lokugweba phantsi kwamalungelo asisiseko, eyakhokelela ekulungisweni okukhethekileyo komgaqo-siseko `a umxholo ohlala usembindini webali lomthetho lotshintsho lomhlaba.

Umgaqo - siseko Wokuphucula Umhlaba

Izibonelelo zomGaqo-siseko

UmGaqo-siseko waseIndiya unika isiseko kunye nemiqathango yomthetho wohlaziyo lwelizwe. Ekuqaleni, imithetho yokuhlaziywa komhlaba yajongene nemiqobo phantsi kweGatya 31, eqinisekisa ilungelo lokwaba impahla. Imithetho yokuqala yokuphelisa isakhiwo yacelw'ucelo-cago ngezizathu zokwaphula eli lungelo lisisiseko. Ukoyisa ukuxhathisa kwezomthetho, umGaqo-siseko watshintshwa izihlandlo eziliqela. Izilungiso-mthetho ezingundoqo ziquka:

  • UHlaliso Lokuqala (1951): Faka amanqaku 31A kunye ne31B, eyabeka imithetho yokuguqula umhlaba ngaphaya kocelomngeni phantsi kweGatya 14, 19, kunye ne31. Inqaku 31B lazisa iShedyuli yeNinth, apho imimiselo yayinokubekwa khona ukukhusela kwingxubusho yezomthetho.
  • IsiHlanzi seSine soHlaziyo (19555): umlinganiselo weGatya 31A yaza yacacisa ukuba imbuyekezo yokufumana ayiyoxabiso lentengiso, ivumela urhulumente afumane umlinganiselo ofanelekileyo.
  • IsiHlanzi esingamashumi amane anesine seFourth Amendment (1978): Inqaku elicinyiweyo 31 (ilungelo kwimpahla) njengelungelo elisisiseko kwaye yayenza yaba ngumgaqo-siseko wamalungelo phantsi kweGatya 300A, elinika ukuba akukho mntu oza kuhluthwa ugcino lwempahla ngegunya lomthetho.

Ukongeza, iMigaqo Elawulayo yeMgaqo-nkqubo yeSizwe, ingakumbi iGatya 39(b) kunye (c), ifuna ulwabelo olulinganayo lwezibonelelo kunye nokuthintelwa kolwanyaniso lobutyebi, inika imfuneko yokuziphatha neyomgaqo-siseko ukwenzela utshintsho lomhlaba. Ngokuyintloko indlu yowiso-mthetho inamandla okumisela imithetho yohlaziyo lwelizwe phantsi kokungeniswa koluhlu lwe-18 (Umhlaba) loLuxa lwaseSizwe kwiShedyuli yeSebethi.

Imithetho Engathathi Nto

Kamsinya emva kwenkululeko, ichaza njengo-Uttar Pradesh, uBihar, iNtshona Bengal, kunye neMadras zimise umthetho wokuphelisa ii-mediaria. UUP Zamirari Ablalition kunye neLand Reformes Act, 1950, ngumzekelo ophawula imbali yomthetho. Le mithetho idla ngokuwacima amalungelo e-zamistards, awafaka kwilizwe, kwaye anikwa amalungelo okusebenza kubalimi bokwenene. Kodwa, imbuyekezo yahliswa kulawulo lwangaphambili lwamazamidar, kwaye inkqubo esemthethweni yayisoloko icotha kwaye ikhuphisana. Ekupheleni koo 1950, inkoliso yamazwe yayiwaphelisa amalungelo e-Gama-Alamndertaire, nangona abahlali bedla ngokungawamkeli amalungelo okuzinika ilungelo lokuzimela.

Imithetho egudileyo yomhlaba

Ukuveliswa kwesilingi zomhlaba . Ukubeka umlinganiselo omkhulu emhlabeni umntu okanye intsapho enokuwubamba, yayilutshintsho olungundoqo olujoliswe ekufumaneni umhlaba othe tyaba. Imida yokunyibilikisa yahluka-hlukene ngokombuso kunye nokwahlulwa komhlaba (umhlaba ongadityaniswanga. Ongakhutshwanga). Ngokuqhelekileyo, uphahla lwahlula ukusuka ku-10-hektare ukuya ku-544, kunye nemida esezantsi yokunisela umhlaba. Umhlaba we-Suplupper wawuza kufunyanwa ngurhulumente kwaye wabelwa kubalimi abangenamhlaba nabalimi abancinane.

Ukuphunyezwa okusemthethweni kwemithetho yophahla kwangqineka kunzima kakhulu. Abalawuli basebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo ukuphepha izilingi: intengiselwano ye-benami (ukususa umhlaba ngamagama abanye), ukwenza izahlulo ezingeyonyaniso, ukuguqula umhlaba, kunye nokukhutshelwa kwemali. Amazwe amaninzi anikezela imithetho yophahla ngeminyaka yee-1960 kunye neyowe-1970, kodwa ezona ndawo ziseleyo zazingaphantsi kakhulu kwexhoba. Umzekelo, ekuqaleni kowe-1990, malunga nesihlanu% somhlaba othelekelelwayo wavakaliswa ukuba uninzi lwawo luyintabalala, kwaye uninzi lwawo lwalulumgangatho ongafanelekanga. Ukungangeni ngokomthetho nokugcinwa komthetho kwaba zizizathu ezingundoqo zokungaphumeleli.

Utshintsho Oluqatha

Utshintsho olubalulekileyo olujolise ekukhuseleni abalimi abahlala apho ekugxothweni ngokusemthethweni, ukulawula irente (edla ngokuyifaka kwi 20-25% yemveliso), kwaye ekugqibeleni inika abaqeshi amalungelo okuba nalo emva kwexesha elithile. Amaphondo amaninzi agqithisa imisebenzi ye-Tenancy, enjengeBombay Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act, 1948, kunye neKerala Land Reformes Act, 1963. Le mithetho yaqalisa imiqathango efana “nokuthengwa kwentengo” apho abaqeshi benokuthenga khona umhlaba ababewulima.

Noko ke, utshintsho olugqithiseleyo lwadla ngokuthintelwa ngabanini-ndlu abavakalisa abaqeshi njengabasebenzi okanye abasebenzi abayamkeli, okanye ngokusebenzisa izivumelwano zomlomo. Kumaphondo anjengeNtshona Bengal, iNqaku, i-Unict Bargal (1988) ezibhalisiweyo kwaye zinikwe ukhuseleko, kodwa ukuzalisekisa kwahluka-hlukene kakhulu kulo lonke ilizwe. Model Agricul Land Letting Act, 2016 (ifakelwe ngu NITIAyograp) imela umzamo wakutshanje wokukhulula nokukhuthaza ukuphatha ngokusemthethweni ngokuvumela abemi ukuba bafumane ilizwe ngokukhuselekileyo ngoxa bekhusela amalungelo abanikazi okufumana ulwayo, kodwa u-2016 [[FLTLD] [FLT] u-Ayogrogdog) umele ukusetyenziswa ngumthetho othenjiweyo.

Ucelomngeni Neengxaki Ezingokwasemthethweni

Iimpikiswano Nobuxoki

Olunye ucelomngeni olunzima kakhulu olungokwasemthethweni luye lwaba lukhukuliso oluvela ekuzalisekisweni komhlaba. Ukungavumelani nemeko yohlaziyo, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba okuseleyo, kunye nembuyiselo kuye kwaziinkundla ezivaliweyo kangangamashumi eminyaka. Kwanasemva kokuphinda-phinda kwemithetho emininzi yelizwe yakudala, ukuphindwa kwamatyala kuyaqhubeka. Umzekelo, iimpikiswano ezinxulumene nohlahlo-lwabiwo-mali [[FLT: 0] intengiselwano yemali (ukufaka impahla phantsi kwamagama angamanga) kufuna uphengululo olude.

Ukongezelela, umahluko phakathi kwelizwe lezolimo nezobulimi elingelulo, ```FLT''' libangele ubalo olubanzi lwezibalo zesilingi'. Oorhulumente basoloko bengaphumeleli ukuhlaziya iingxelo zomhlaba, nto leyo ekhokelela ekungangqinelani ukuba iinkundla kufuneka zisombulule. [[FLT: 0] 2019 PRS Legistive Applitive Research[ yaphawula ukuba kwamanye amazwe, ngaphezu kwesithathu samatyala eenkundla yesithilithi ebandakanye iimbambano zomhlaba. Jonga: PRS: Land Dis and Land Records [FLT:]

Iingxelo Zelizwe Ezinganele Nobhaliso

Imfuneko esisiseko esemthethweni yalo naliphi na ilizwe lotshintsho ichanile, i-ast-dmist. Ngelishwa, inkqubo yokurekhoda yomhlaba yase-Indiya ibidume kakubi. Amazwe amaninzi asaxhomekeka kwiingxelo zezandla ezingaphelelanga okanye ezingasetyenziswanga. I-Inconsistencies phakathi kweRecord of Rights (RR), uphando lweemaphu, kunye namaxwebhu okubhalisa enza iingxelo zomthetho ezisemthethweni. Umthetho we-Britacio, 1908, ufuna ukubhaliswa ngokunyanzeleka kwentengiso kuwo onke amazwe, kodwa ubhaliso asiqinisekisi isiqu sobalo (* kuphela intembeko yokufuduselwa kwenye indawo. Oku kukhokelela ekufuneni intengo ezininzi kwipasi enye nenkohliso.

Urhulumente wandulula i- Digal Indiya Iingxelo zelifa lemveli (DILRMP) ngo- 2008 ukwenza iingxelo zekhompyutha nokuhlaziya, ukudibanisa ubhaliso neengxelo zomhlaba, kwaye ukuya kutsho kwingxelo yoqikelelo. Inkqubela ayizange ihambe kakuhle; amanye amaphondo afana noGujaratat, Karnaka, kunye noMaharashtra benze ii-srites, ngelixa ezinye zithe zasetyenziswa. Ingxelo nguMphathiswano woPhuhliso lwaseMazalbal ibonisa ukuba ngexesha elimalunga ne-88% yeerekhodi zidityanisiwe, angama-45% kuphela aye anxulunyaniswa nobhaliso. Jonga: [[FLT:] DILMPR]

Ukuphethuka kweMithetho yokuKhusela kunye neMithetho yeBenami

Naphezu kwamashumi eminyaka omthetho wesilingi, isikali esikhulu siqhubekeka. Abalawuli belizwe baye basebenzisa izixhobo zomthetho ezinjengezipho, ifaza, izithembiso, kunye namalungiselelo okugcina izinto zingaphantsi kophahla. iBenami Transactions (Isivumelwano) Awusebenzi, 1988 uwiso-mthetho owenzelwe ukunqanda oku, kodwa uswele amazinyo iminyaka. Ngo-2016, ukurhoxiswa okubanzi kuziswa kwimiqathango yemitya, kuquka ukuvalelwa kwempahla ye-benami. Noko ke, ukwenziwa kwemidathatho phantsi koMthetho kucotha, kwaye iimeko ezininzi zisekho phambi kokumiswa kwe-BenProsalm

Iinkcazelo zomthetho zichaphazele ukunyanzeliswa komthetho. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi R. K. Arora v. Umbuso we Uttar Pradesh (1962) wakholelwa ukuba imithetho ebekwe phezu kwendlu mayicaciswe ngokungqongqo, kwaye ii-athority ziyamxhasa umnini-mhlaba. Izigqibo zimise amandla karhulumente okuvula kwakhona iindawo ezizinzileyo. Ezi zithintelo zomthetho zithetha ukuba uninzi lwemingxube yasemhlabeni luye lwasinda kwi-redis travert.

Ucalucalulo Olukwimithetho Yamazwe

Enye imbambano ephindaphindwayo engomthetho kukuba yindoda nendoda ekwindawo ethile. Kwimbali, imithetho yelifa elithandwa ngamadoda, kunye notshintsho ngokufuthi lungaqondanga lungadibanisi amabhinqa. UMthetho wesi-Hindu wempumelelo, 1956, wanika amabhinqa amalungelo alinganayo kwilizwe lokulima emva kokubuyiselwa kwelizwe ngo-2005, esetyenziswa kuwo onke amazwe. Kodwa imithetho yesizwe ihlala ibuthathaka. Imithetho yemithetho yemithetho yesizwe isazi ukuba ikho. [[FLT:] USAD: Abafazi kunye nelizwe laseAIndiyam: kunye nelizwe. [FFEN]

Uphuhliso Notshintsho Lwakutshanje

Ukudityaniswa Nokusetyenziswa Kwale Mizi yeeRekhodi Zomhlaba

IDILRMP ibiyinkqubo yeflegi ehamba phambili, kodwa inkqubela-phambili yakutshanje iquka ukuveliswa kwemiqathango yemivo yesiseko sesiseko sesiseko sedata yemali , ukudityaniswa ne Aadhaar ukuze ibonwe, kunye neeprojekthi zenqwelo-moya zokuphelisa izithuba ezikhethiweyo. Ngo-2020, urhulumente wasungula i [[FLT:] iModel Landss System [[[FLT:]] ukucutha iifom zefomati ezithelekisa iifomati ngaphandleko. Noko ke, isalathi-mstiki esisemthethweni (iiiiiiincopho) ebhaliweyo ngenkqubo yobhaliso. Kodwa uGenethi lwezwe.[FT]

UMthetho weModeli wokuDlulisela, 2016

Ukuthetha ngokuhambelana kotshintsho, u-NITI Aayog wacebisa ukuba kubekwe imodeli ye-Land Lift Act ngo-2016. Esi senzo sivumela abanini-mhlaba ukuba baqeshe umhlaba ngaphandle kokoyika ukuphulukana nobunikazi, ngexa benika abaqeshi indawo ekhuselekileyo. Ivumela iirenti zomlomo (ngengxelo ebhaliweyo), irente esengqiqweni, kunye nekhuselwa ekugxothweni ngexesha lokuqeshwa. Ngonyaka wama-2023, kuphela amazwana ambalwa afana no-Uttar Pradesh kunye no-Utakhand aye amkela iinguqulelo zalemodeli. Ucelomngeni olusemthethweni lukulungelelanisa ukutshintsha komgangatho womhlaba ngokhuseleko oluneyo olunento enzima olugqithisileyo.

Ukuphendula Kwejaji Nemigwebo Eyintloko Yenkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo inike izigwebo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo ezichaphazela utshintsho lomhlaba kwishumi leminyaka elidlulileyo. Imo yeKerala v K. S. Abishilash [2022], iNkundla igxininisa ukuba utshintsho lwelizwe yinkqubo eqhubekayo kwaye oorhulumente kufuneka bahlaziye imithetho yabo ngokuhambelana neenjongo zomgaqo-siseko. [[FLT: 2] Umndululi we-Intex (Intengiso) v. Andabaral Development Trust[[[FLT:] [20]] (20) inkundla isebenza ngomlinganiselo woncedo lwelizwe elincedayo nokukhulula kwabo ulawulo olusemthethweni. Olunye ulawulo olubalulekileyo, [FLT: B.]. urhulumente we-NT.[2020]

IziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko neShedyuli yeNtloko

IShedyuli ye-Ninth, ekhusela imithetho ekuhloleni kwetyala, iye yayindawo enemiqathango ephindwe kabini. Ngeli xesha ivumela imithetho yolungiso yomhlaba ephikiswayo ukuba iphumelele kucelomngeni lwakudala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi .R. Coelho v. Urhulumente weTamil Nadu[[FLT 1]] (2007) ibambelele ekubeni imithetho ebekwe kwiNinth Stem emva ko 1973 isenolwazi lokuhlola phantsi kwe-“siseko sobukhoma". Le nto ibangele ukuba eminye imithetho yelizwe lakutshanje ingakwazi ukuguqula imiqathango yomgaqo-siseko. Ngoku oorhulumente abaliqela baphinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda-phinda umthetho wabo wotshintsho lwelizwe ukuze baqinisekise ukuba bangaphicolingene kumgangatho ofanelekileyo nakunene wokuziphilisa phantsi kweQumganga-21.

Isiphelo

Iinkalo ezisemthethweni zotshintsho lwelizwe eIndiya zintsonkothile yaye zisoloko zijikeleza. Umgaqo-siseko, kunye nomthetho-siseko ocacisiweyo, uyile imigaqo edityanisiweyo enenjongo yokuphumeza ubulungisa bentlalo kodwa ngokufuthi iyasilela ngenxa yokuzalisekisa izithuba, ukudityaniswa, nokungagqibeki. Ilifa elingokwembali le-Land Land Combingmentalis Act, kunye nokungalawuleki kusenenzeki kusenika ithemba elinamandla, kwaye kunika ulawulo olusemthethweni olunemiqatha, kunye neengxaki ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni, kunye nemithetho engundoqo engundoqo, ukuthelekisa imicimbi, ukuthelekisa ubufana namabhinqa, kunye nokulibala kwemithetho elawulayo, kunye nokungagqibeleli kwemithetho esemthethweni ekhoyo elungele ukusetyenziswa kwemeko-ntle yentlalo-ntle kunye nokugcinwa kwemeko-ntle yentlalo-ntle. I-Agi, iinkundla zezomthetho zesizwe, kunye nezigunyaziso ezisemthethweni, nezigunyazwe eliphantsi eliphantsi eliphantsi komthetho eliphantsi kwelizwe eliphantsi elisemthethweni, elifunekayo, elifanelekileyo, elinguwonke lonke