Ukuqonda imida yamandla karhulumente kubalulekile kulo naliphi na ibutho lolawulo-moya. Amalungelo e-COBIC asebenza njengesiseko senkululeko yomntu ngamnye, eqinisekisa ukuba abemi bangathatha inxaxheba ngokupheleleyo ekulawuleni kwabo. La malungelo akasozizipho ezivela kurhulumente kodwa amalungelo angokwemvelo afanele akhuselwe ekuphangweni. Abemi abanolwazi oluhle, abanolwazi lwemibambo kunye nemida yegunya likarhulumente, yindlela eyomeleleyo yokukhusela ulawulo olunamandla. Olu khokelo luhlola iziseko, imigangatho, iindlela, kunye neengxaki zamaxesha okulwela amalungelo entlalo, ukubonelela ngendlela abemi abanokuyikhusela ngayo inkululeko yabo.

Isiseko Sikarhulumente Olinganiselweyo

Ingcamango yokuba igunya likarhulumente kufuneka linyanzelwe ayiyontsha. Ingcamango yezakhono zobulumko njengoJohn Locke yaphikisa ngelithi igunya elisemthethweni lifumaneka kwimvume yabalawulwayo nokuba abantu banelungelo lokwemvelo lobomi, inkululeko, nempahla. Ingcamango kaLocke yesivumelwano sentlalo, echazwe kwisivumelwano sakhe [ii-FLT] Spective of Government [, iphakamisa oko abantu badala oorhulumente ukuze bakhusele loo malungelo, kwaye xa urhulumente ebangquzula, abemi banelungelo lokuxhathisa.

Montesquieu wandiswe koku ngokukhuthaza ukwahlulwa kwamagunya ```IFLT'', iwisogrative,' kunye nezomthetho-'ukukhusela naliphi na isebe elingalawuliyo.' Umsebenzi wakhe waphembelela ngokunzulu abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko wase-U. James Madison, ku u-Federalist No. 51, wabhala, ukuthi, “Ukuba abantu bebeziizithunywa zezulu, akukho rhulumente ubuya kuba yimfuneko. Ukuba iingelosi bezingalawula abantu, kungekho lulawulo lwangaphandle okanye lwangaphakathi kurhulumente." Oku kukhokelela kwinkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolwahluzo oluhlala luhleli ligumbi lolawulo olulinganiselweyo lukarhulumente.

Ezi mfundiso zentanda - bulumko aziyongcamango nje yemfundo, zithetha okuthile, zisikhumbuza ukuba urhulumente uyinto engendawo efunekayo, emele ifakwe umthetho yaye ijongwe kakuhle. Abemi abayiqondayo le migaqo bakulungele ngakumbi ukuwaqonda xa amalungelo abo esengozini yaye bafuna ukuphenduliswa.

Ukuphuhliswa Kwamalungelo Embali

Indaleko yamalungelo abantu iye yabunjwa ngamaxwebhu nentsebenziswano embali. Ngoxa inqaku lokuqala lithetha ngeMagna Carta neBhili yamaLungelo, imbono epheleleyo yembali iquka ezinye iziganeko ezibalulekileyo.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Ityikitywe phantsi kwemithetho kaKumkani uJohn waseNgilani, iMagna Carta yaqinisekisa ukuba umlawuli wayengengangaphezulu komthetho. Yaqinisekisa iinkqubo ezithile zomthetho kunye neekhontrakthi ezikhuselayo ekuvalelweni ngokungekho mthethweni ngokuzenzekelayo . "into eyandulela inkqubo efunekayo.) u-Claus 39 uthi: “Akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kuthi abanjwe okanye avalelwe entolongweni... ngaphandle kokuba kugwegwe ngokusemthethweni koontanga bakhe okanye ngomthetho welizwe." Lo mgaqo kamva waphembelela uMgaqo-siseko we-siseko we-U.S.

IBhili yamaNgesi Yamalungelo (1689)

Emva kweNguquko Ezukileyo, iBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo yawathintela amandla obukumkani, yagatya ibheyile egqithisileyo, isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga, yaza yaqinisekisa ilungelo lokucela umlawuli. Yakwaqinisekisa ukuba kufuneka ipalamente ivume irhafu. Ezi ngcamango zahamba ngaphaya kweAtlantiki zaza zabumba iimbono ze-mathanga ngenkululeko.

IBhili yaMalungelo yase-U.S. (1791)

Izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi zenkululeko esisiseko emiselwe umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S.: ukuthetha, unqulo, ukucofa, indibano, nelungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, kunye nezokhuseleko ekuphandweni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula, ukungaziniki ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engekho kwinkqubo efanelekileyo. IBhili yamaLungelo ihlala ingumqondiso wehlabathi lonke wamalungelo entlalo.

ISibhengezo Samalungelo Omntu Nawabemi (ngowe - 1789)

Olu xwebhu lwamkelwa ngexesha leMvukelo yamaFrentshi, lwavakalisa “ukukhulula, impahla, ukhuseleko nokuxhathisa ingcinezelo” njengamalungelo emvelo. Lwaphembelela imicimbi yedemokhrasi kulo lonke elaseYurophu nokuqulunqwa komgaqo-siseko omninzi kamva.

ISindululo Sehlabathi Lonke Samalungelo Abantu (1948)

Emva kobungendawo beMfazwe Yehlabathi II, iZizwe Ezimanyeneyo zamkela iUDHR, eyamisela uluhlu olubanzi lwemipu, lwezobupolitika, lwezoqoqosho, lwentlalo, kunye namalungelo enkcubeko. Nangona ingabo ababotshelelwa ngokwasemthethweni ngokwalo, iye yaphembelela izivumelwano ezininzi, imigaqo-siseko yesizwe, kunye nemithetho. Ukufunda umbhalo opheleleyo weUDHR.]

Iindidi zamalungelo e-Covic

Amalungelo e-Covic ahlulwe ngamacandelo amathathu abanzi: ezobupolitika, entlalweni nasekuhlaleni.

Amalungelo Ezobupolitika

Amalungelo ezobupolitika avumela abemi ukuba babe nenxaxheba kulawulo lwelizwe labo. Eyona nto ibalulekileyo lilungelo lokuvota. Ngaphandle kokuthomalalisa, amanye amalungelo kunzima ukuwanyanzelisa. Amalungelo ezobupolitika akwaquka ilungelo lokungenela isikhundla, ukuseka amaqela ezobupolitika, nokuqhankqalaza ngoxolo. La malungelo aqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uhlala ephendula kubantu.

Elinye ilungelo elibalulekileyo lezobupolitika lilo inkululeko yonxulumano. Abami kufuneka bakwazi ukudibana namaqela ezobupolitika, enoba ngamaqela, amaqumrhu, okanye imibutho egunyazisa ulawulo, kwimpembelelo edibeneyo. Ngaphandle kwale lungelo, ukungavumelani kungahlawulwa kuze kucinezelwe.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni aqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho kwaye akhusela ucalucalulo. Aquka ilungelo lokuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni, lokungathuthunjiswa, nokukhuselwa ukuze kubekwe inkululeko yobuqu nokuzilawula. EUnited States, iSivumelo samaLungelo saMalungelo esingu-1964 kunye nomthetho olandelayo wakwalela ucalucalucalulo olusekelwe kwibala, imibala, unqulo, isini okanye imvelaphi yesizwe.

Ulwandiso lwangoku lwamalungelo abantu agquma isombululo se-LGBTQ+ abantu, abantu abaneziphene, namanye amaqela asezantsi. AmaMelika anoMthetho okhubazeko (1990) kunye nemithetho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ejongene nokulingana kwemitshato ibonisa indlela amalungelo abantu aguquka ngayo anokutshintsha imilinganiselo yesocial. Ukufunda ngakumbi malunga nobuncwane be-ADA .]

UMthetho we-

Amalungelo oluntu abandakanya ukufikelela kwizinto eziyimfuneko njengemfundo, impilo, izindlu, kunye nokhuseleko lwentlalo. Ngoxa kudla ngokuxutyushwa ngokuthi “amalungelo aqinisekileyo” afuna ukuthathwa kwenyathelo likarhulumente, abalulekile ukuze akwazi ukuba nenxaxheba ngokupheleleyo kwibutho labantu. Umzekelo, ngaphandle kwemfundo, abemi abanakuwasebenzisa ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo ezobupolitika. Ngaphandle kocoselelo lwezempilo, abantu basenokungakwazi ukusebenza okanye ukubandakanyeka kubomi boluntu.

Imigaqo yamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke, enjengeSivumelwano seZizwe Ngezizwe esingobuNtlalo, igqala la malungelo njengasemthethweni. Noko ke, ukuphunyezwa kwawo kuyahluka-hluka kumazwe. Abanye bawajonga njengosukelo olunqwenelekayo, ngoxa amanye ewabeka kumthetho wezomthetho.

Umatshini Olinganisela Amandla Karhulumente

Ukuthintela ukuphangwa korhulumente, ulawulo-melo luxhomekeke kwimiqathango yesakhiwo ehlola igunya. Ezi zinto zingaphaya kwemiqathango engokwasemthethweni; zibandakanya ukwenziwa kwequmrhu, ukubonakala kwangaphandle, kunye nolawulo lukawonke-wonke.

Ukusetyenziswa komGaqo-siseko kunye nokujongwa kunye nolungelelwaniso

Umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo umisela owona mthetho uphakamileyo welizwe. Wahlula-hlula amandla phakathi kwamasebe kunye nemaleko karhulumente (ulawulo). Ngokomzekelo, umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika urhulumente worhulumente othile amandla athile ngeli lixa egcina amanye kumaphondo. Oku kukhutshwa kwegunya kudala amabala amaninzi ukuze kungenelwe inxaxheba yoluntu nokuchasa ulawulo lobuzwilakhe.

Ingcebiso yezeejaji neeNkundla ezizimeleyo

Ijaji ezimeleyo ingabetha imithetho okanye izenzo zegunya ezichasene nomgaqo-siseko okanye amalungelo asisiseko. Umgaqo wohlolo lwezomthetho, omiselwe ku- Madison [1803], uvumela iinkundla ukuba ziphelise izenzo zikarhulumente. Eli gunya liyinkuselo eqatha; ngaphandle kwalo, iintlawulo zowiso-mthetho zinokuyibeka imithetho ephazamisa inkululeko ngaphandle kokuyiphendula.

Inkqubo efanelekileyo noMthetho

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakuhlutha abantu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwemigaqo esesikweni. Oku kuquka isaziso, ukuva, umenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso, nelungelo lokubhena. Umthetho ufuna ukuba imithetho icace, i-wonke, kwaye isetyenziswe ngokulinganayo.

Uluntu lwangaphakathi kunye noshicilelo olukhululekileyo

Ibutho lasekuhlaleni elinamaqhawe − kuquka imibutho engekho 2016 engenisa ingeniso, amaqela ee-athom, kunye namajelo eendaba azimeleyo `asebenza njengesixhobo sokugada igunya likarhulumente. Abachola-ndaba babhenca urhwaphilizo, abaxhasi bakhuthaza inkcaso kwimithetho engekho sikweni, kunye nabemi abaqhelekileyo basebenzisa ijelo loluntu ukulungiselela. Oorhulumente abazama ukuphelisa aba badlali basoloko begwetyelwa emakhaya namazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe.

Unyulo Lwamaxa athile Lukhululekile Lulungile

Unyulo lunika ithuba elithe rhoqo lokuthatha indawo yamagosa asebenzisa kakubi igunya. Kodwa unyulo lulodwa alwanele; kufuneka lukhululeke ekulawuleni, ekucinezeleni, nasekungeneni komvoti kwamanye amazwe. Ukubala okucacileyo, iikomishini zonyulo ezizimeleyo, namaphulo amakhulu ayimfuneko ukuze unyulo lube ziingqiniba zokwenene.

Ucelomngeni Lwamalungelo Omthetho

Kule nkulungwane yama - 21, uninzi lwale ngxaki luye lwaqondwa, luquka ubugcisa, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi nemilinganiselo yezobupolitika etshintshatshintshayo.

Ingeniso ephezulu karhulumente kunye nemfihlo yamanani

Iminyaka yamanani incede ukuba kubekho ukhangelo olungathethekiyo. Abameli borhulumente bajonga uthungelwano, baqokelela ii-metadata, kwaye basebenzise ulwaluko lobuso. Ngexa kusoloko kufanelekile ukukhusela uhlanga, ezi ndlela zinokubandakanyeka kumazwi akhululekileyo kwaye ziphazamisana nezobucala. EUnited States, PATRIOTT Act [[[FLT:]] Amandla ogqithisiweyo anwenwe kakhulu emva ko-9/11, nto ekhokelela ekuxhalabeni ngokuphazamisiswa. Abahlalutyisi bezinto ezininzi baphikisa ukuba intengiswa ye-DSPGenethiwe-FLT [FT:2] I-INT] Imithetho ekhoyo enjenge-USDSDSD ] I-USD, kodwa iyaqhubeka i-Screlifertivective ukusuka kwi-FCYD [FT]

Ucalucalulo Nokungalingani Kwenkqubo

Imithetho isenokuqinisekisa ukulingana, kodwa ucalucalulo luyaqhubeka. Ukungalingani kwemida yeentlanga, imida yokuhlawulwa, ukufumaneka ngokungafaniyo kwezindlu, kunye nocalucalulo kwinkqubo yezolwaphulo-mthetho lunciphisa amalungelo abantu. Imibutho enjenge Emnyama Live Matter ibalaselise indlela ugonyamelo lwamapolisa olujoliswe ngokungenakulinganiswa nanto ngayo kumaqela amancinane. Ngokufanayo, ucalucalulo nxamnye namabhinqa, LGBTQ+ abantu, kunye nonqulo oluncinane luhlala luxhaphaze kwimimandla emininzi. Ukuphendula kule mibandela kufuna kungekuphela kweenguquko ezingokwasemthethweni kodwa kwaneenkqubo zoburhulumente.

Ukucinezelwa Kokungakhathalelwa Nokuthotywa Kweenkqubo Zedemokhrasi

Abanye oorhulumente balwa ngabom inkcaso ngokuvavanya, ukukhathazwa kweentatheli, nokumangalelwa ngokutshabhisa (iisuti ze-SLAP). Kwidemokhrasi, ukwanda kweenkokeli zepopuli ezihlasela iinkundla ezizimeleyo, amajelo eendaba, kunye nokuthembeka kokhetho kungumngcipheko. Xa izithethe ezibhekiselele kwiziphumo zonyulo okanye ukuphepha i-nepotismsm/iyaphulwa, imida yamandla iyaphelelwa. Inginginya yokukhusela ezi zinzima, njengoko zisoloko zisongelwa nzima ukuzibuyisela kunemithetho ebhaliweyo.

Inkcazelo Ephosakeleyo Nenkcazelo Engachananga

Ukusasazeka kwenkcazelo yobuxoki, esoloko ikhutshwa ngamajelo eendaba, kunokugqwetha ingxoxo kawonke-wonke kunye nokuphelisa ukuthembana kwamaziko. Oorhulumente basenokusebenzisa kakubi inkcazelo ukugxeka abo bachasayo okanye ukuthethelela imiqathango yokuthetha. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iinkampani zabucala zisebenzisa amandla amakhulu phezu koko kubonakalayo kwenkcazelo. Iinkqubo zobuchule ezilwa nobuxoki obuyingozi ngaphandle kokukhankanya intetho esemthethweni lucelomngeni olukhulu kulawulo-demokhrasi lwale mihla.

Ukufikelela okungaphezulu kwequmrhu

Ngexesha lentlekele (iintlekele zemvelo, izisongelo zabagrogrisi), oorhulumente badla ngokuthatha amagunya ongxamiseko. Nangona kuyimfuneko ngamanye amaxesha, la mandla angasetyenziswa kakubi. Umzekelo, ukuvalwa kwamaxesha okufika ngexesha ngexesha lomhla phakathi kwesifo seCOVID somsantsa. Iinkundla ezininzi zabetha imiqathango ebanzi. Ulawulo lomthetho kunye nokutshona kwelanga kumanyathelo ongxamiseko ziqinisekisa ukuba amandla okwexeshana awabi nasisigxina.

Indima Yabemi Ekuthetheleni Amalungelo Emipu

Amalungelo e-Covic akanyanzelisi, kufuneka ukuba umntu abe nenxaxheba. Nawa amanyathelo asebenzisekayo anokuthathwa ngabantu:

Imbono yehlabathi nemigangatho yehlabathi

Amalungelo ayahluka zwenibanzi, kodwa umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe unika isiseko. Umnqophiso wezizwe ngezizwe wamalungelo asekuhlaleni kunye nezobupolitika (ICCPR), ovunyiwe ngamazwe angaphezu kwe-170, unyanzelisa amazwe ukuba ahlonele inkululeko yokuthetha, indibano, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Iinkqubo zephondo ezinjengeNgqungquthela yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu neNkundla yamaPhondo ye-Intergan American yamalungelo abantu zinika abantu ubuchule bokufuna iintambo zokulungisa iintetho ngaphaya koorhulumente babo.

Noko ke, ukuthobela akungqinelani. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe kudla ngokutyikitya kodwa akuzihoyi izivumelwano. Kwanolawulo-mpukane lujongene nokugxekwa ngenxa yezenzo ezinjengokuvalelwa ngokungenasiqinisekiso eGuantánamo Bay okanye ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango engekho mthethweni. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe kunceda abemi bamazwe bafune ukukhuselwa ngokuqinileyo kwaye kubhenca ubuqho.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda imida yamandla karhulumente asiyondlela yoqeqesho yemfundo esebenzayo yokugcina inkululeko. Amalungelo e-CBIC, ekuthetheni ngokukhululekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo, awangosigxina; kufuneka akhuselwe rhoqo. Amava embali abonisa ukuba amalungelo ayanda xa abemi befuna kwaye besenza isivumelwano xa abemi bengekho mthethweni. Iinkqubo zikarhulumente ezisikelwe umda (*amalungu esizwe), ulawulo lwezomthetho, ulawulo lwesizwe, lulungela inkqubo esebenzayo kuphela ukuba inxalenye nganye iyasebenza. Ummi ngamnye unendima ekulondolozeni ezo ziphumo. Ngokuzinzisa, ukusebenza kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi, nokubamba igunya lokuphendula, singaqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uyaqhubeka engumkhonzi, kungekhona umlawuli, umlawuli, urhulumente, urhulumente, umlawuli, urhulumente, urhulumente, urhulumente wabantu.