IBill of Rights, eyagunyaziswa ngoDisemba 15, 1791, yenye yamaxwebhu athandwayo naphikiswayo kwimbali yaseMerika. Ukuqokelela intelekelelo yokuqala elishumi kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, kwaseka ikhusi elisesikweni lenkululeko yomntu ngamnye nxamnye namandla karhulumente karhulumente wesizwe. Kwiminyaka engaphezu kwama- 230, ezi zindululo ziye zaguqula impembelelo esemthethweni yesizwe, iphembelela intlalo yentlalo, kwaye zasebenza njengophawu lwenkululeko yehlabathi lonke. Ukuqonda iBhili lamaLungelo akufuni nje kuphela ukuqondwa kwemvelaphi yayo engokwembali kodwa kwanoxabiso ngendlela amalungiselelo ayo aye achazwa ngayo, anwenwa, avavanywa ngayo kwizizukulwana. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa impembelelo epheleleyo yemithetho entle, iingcambutho, iintambo, iinkundla zemali, iinkundla zalebhunga, iingxelo zalebhunga, neempikiswano ezihlala ixesha elide.

Imbali: Imfazwe Yamalungelo

UMgaqo-siseko, owabhaliswa ngowe-1787, wadala urhulumente onamandla onamandla kuneZihloko zoBunyanzelo. Noko ke, amaMerika amaninzi ayesoyika ukuba eli gunya litsha lesizwe lalinokuwaphazamisa amalungelo ababewalwele ukukhusela ngexesha leMvukelo. Ingxoxo yokuba ngaba irekhodi yamalungelo yayifuneka kusini na i-asemngciphekweni ophantse wathintelwa. Iziphumo zaba kukulalanisa kwezobupolitika okwavelisa iziphendu zokuqala zeshumi.

Ingxoxo yoluhlu lomanyano vs. Okuchasene noFederalist

Ngexesha leendibano zokwahlula-hlula zonyaka wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anesibhozo,1788, iinkampu ezimbini ezahlukileyo zavela. abalandeli be-FURT, bekhokelwa ngu-Alexander Hamilton noJames Madison, baphikisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo ulinganiselweyo amandla karhulumente ngokudweliswa kwamagunya kwaye ukongeza irela lokufumana amalungelo kwakuyimfuneko, kwaye kwanobungozi, ekubeni ukudwelisa amanye amalungelo kunokuthetha ukuba amalungelo angabekwanga kuluhlu akakho. Anti-FREDAlist [[, kuquka uGenekry noGeorge Mason, kwagxininisa ukuba ngaphandle kokhuseleko olucacileyo, urhulumente worhulumente olungele ukungenelelana kwenkululeko, ulawulo, ulawulo oluluvo olulukungalungele ukuhlasela.

  • Amaqela asebenza ngomanyano ayekholelwa kwisakhiwo somGaqo-siseko (*) ukwahlula amagunya, ukukhangela nokulinganisela) okwanele ukukhusela inkululeko.
  • Abalwa neFedalist bafuna isiqinisekiso esibhaliweyo samalungelo omntu ngamnye njengemeko yokusetyenziswa kwenqanawa.

Indima KaJames Madison

UJames Madison, ekuqaleni ongumGaqo-siseko woManyano, ekugqibeleni waba nguMnyanzeli ophambili weBhili yamaLungelo. Emva kokuthembisa ukulungisa imviwo ngexesha lendibano yokudityaniswa kwemiGaqo-siseko yaseVirginia, uMadison wafaka izicelo ezilishumi elinesixhenxe ezisekelwe kwiingcebiso zeendibano zokwandiswa kwephondo kunye neSindululo samaLungelo saMarginio saqatshelwa nguGeorge Mason. IiBhunga zazinciphisa zaba zilishumi elinesibini, kwaye ishumi lamalungu agunyaziswa ngamazwe. Iminikelo kaMadison yafaka ilifa lakhe njengo “Yise woMgaqo-siseko” kunye nomphathi wenkululeko yabemi. [[FLT:] uViorders unika imbali ebanzi yenkqubo yokwakhenke i-ratiation

Uhlaziyo Olulishumi: Ukukhusela Ikhowe Neendaleko Zayo

Isigqibo ngasinye kwiBhili yamaLungelo sithetha ngommandla othile wenkululeko yomntu siqu okanye inkqubo engokwasemthethweni. Ngoxa abanye behlala bezinzile ngokwentelekiso, abanye baye badala impikiswano enzulu kangangeenkulungwane. Ngeli ngezantsi, sihlolisisa injongo nganye yantlandlolo kunye nenkcazelo yayo yale mihla ngemimiselo yenkundla enemiba.

Uhlaziyo Lokuqala: Inkululeko Yokuthetha, Yonqulo, Yokwenza Uthengiso, Yombutho Nesibongozo

UHlaliso Lokuqala ludla ngokuthathwa njengesiseko sedemokhrasi yaseMelika. Ithintela iNgqungquthela ekwenzeni imithetho ephathelele ukusekwa konqulo, ukuthintela ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko yokuthetha, ukushicilela, ukuhlanganisa, okanye ukubongoza. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yasebenzisa ezi zikhuseli kurhulumente ngokusebenzisa i-Gradimetic Procession ye-1445 Claus / a inkqubo eyaziwa ngokuba i-incorporation.

  • Intetho Ekhululekileyo: Iimeko zephepha eliphawulayo ezinjenge Scheck v. United States (1919) yaseka uvavanyo “olucacileyo nolukhoyo”, loxa [[FLT]] Brandenburg v. Ohio[FLT] [[69]] [196] imisela isiqobo esiphezulu sokuqeqesha intetho ekraza. Namhlanje, impikiswano ngokucatshulwa ngokuthelekisa iimpahla zezopolitiko zelizwe ([FLT:]] .[FLT]] .[FLT]][FLT][FLT]7]]
  • Unqulo: Ukumiselwa kuka-Claus kuxonxisile umthandazo wesikolo, ukuboniswa kwasesidlangalaleni kwemiqondiso yonqulo, kunye nemali karhulumente yamaziko onqulo ( Lemon v. Kurtzman[, 1971]). I-Free Emplificing Claus ikhusela ilungelo labantu lokuqhelisela ukholo lwabo, kunye neemeko zakutshanje ezibandakanya ukukhulula konqulo emsebenzini nasemgangathweni.
  • Izakhono kunye neNdibano: Umatshini wokushicilela ukhuselwa ekuthintelweni kwangaphambili, nangona inkxalabo yokhuseleko nenkxalabo yokhuseleko lwesizwe zidala imida. Ilungelo lokuhlanganisa liye laba sembindini kwiMbutho yamalungelo abantu kunye nemibhiyozo yale mihla enjengeBlack Lives Matter.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya koMgqibo wokuqala woLawulo, Iqumrhu loLwimi loMgaqo-siseko linika ushwankathelo olubanzi[[FLT: 1].

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Unelungelo lokugcina Nokuthwala Izixhobo

ISibini Somthambeko sithi: “IMilitia, efunekayo kukhuseleko loRhulumente okhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Iizixhobo, ayizukumonyulwa." Kwimbali enkulu yaseMelika, olu tshintsho lwachazwa ngelensi yenkonzo yemikhosi. Noko ke, izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ku iHeller (2008) kunye [[FLT] McDonald. V. Mcc.

  • Ingxoxo yokulawula yeGun: Isigqibo seHeller saphelisa ukuvalwa kompu wesibhamu eWashington D.C. kodwa sashiya igumbi lemigaqo esengqiqweni. Iimeko ezilandelayo zithetha ngemiqathango kwizixhobo zokuhlasela, umthamo wamaphephancwadi, kunye nokuphatha okufihlakeleyo. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka ikhula ngokulandela ukudubula nokwanda kolwaphulo-mthetho.
  • Imithetho yeSizwe kunye nokusetyenziswa: Ama- States anemithetho eyahlukene kakhulu ekuhloleni okungasemva, amaxesha okulinda, kunye nokuvula. IsiHlomelo sesibini sihlala sikwindawo ebanzi kwezobupolitika zaseMelika.

UMthetho Wesithathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukuhlanganiswa Kwamajoni

Oku kupheliswa okunqabileyo kuyalela urhulumente ekunyanzeleni abaninimakhaya ukuba bawanyanzelise amajoni endlu ngexesha loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume. Kubonakalisa izikhalazo zelizwe lamathanga nxamnye nezenzo zobuBritane kwaye kukhe kwacatshulwa kwiimeko zangoku malunga namalungelo obuqu (umz. [[FLT: 0]]] Englom v. Carey, 1982]. Ngelixa kunqabile ukudityaniswa, kugxininisa ukuzinikela kwabaseki kwimicimbi yasekhaya.

UMthetho Wesine: Ukufuna Nokuzimela

UHlaziyo lwesine lukhusela abemi ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni, kufuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo. Utoliko lwayo luye lwavela ngokuphawulekayo ngotshintsho lobugcisa. Umthetho okhutshelwayo (ukubhalisa okufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni) awunakusetyenziswa enkundleni.

  • Imfihlo: Inkundla ePhakamileyo inyuse ukhuseleko lwesine Lomthambeko kwicellular phone (] Riley v. California, 2014), iGPS ilandela i-( United States v. Jones, 2012, kunye nogcino-lwazi lwendawo yesethi yembali ([[FLTLT:6]] Centententer v. United States[FL:], 2018]). Le mimiselo iyayazi ukuba uphando lwamanani lungaphakathi.
  • [[NTL: 0] Izenzo zobuPolitiki:[ Imigaqo-nkqubo yokumisa kunye ne-frisk, ukumisa kwezithuthi, kwaye kungekho mvume yokuvala imoto i-knock iyaqhubeka iphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokuqhaqhatha kobuhlanga nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni.

UMthetho Wesihlanu Ohlaziyiweyo: Amalungelo Kumatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu sinika ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo kubantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho: izilumkiso ezinkulu zabachopheli-tyala ezinzulu, ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini, ilungelo elichasene nokuzidibanisa, inkqubo efunekayo, nembuyekezo karhulumente yokuthatha impahla yabucala. Ingxelo yokwahlukana ngokwayo isenokuba yaziwayo kakhulu Mirnanda izilumkiso ezikhulu zejaji [[ [[FLT]]] [[FLT]]MARANDA v.[FLT], 1966], efuna amapolisa azicingela amatyala abo phambi kokuncinwa.

  • [[NTL:0] Inkqubo eQinisekileyo: Inkqubo eBekiweyo ka Claus isetyenzisiwe ukudibanisa iBhili yamaLungelo yoKhuselo kumazwe nokukhusela amalungelo angaphantsi njengakulingana komtshato ([[FLT: 2]]]bergecfell v. Hodges, 2015).
  • Ummandla ophambili: Ukuthatha u-Claus kudityaniswe, ngokukodwa ku Kelo v. IsiXeko saseNew London (2005], apho iNkundla yavumela urhulumente ukuba athathe impahla yecala ukuze aphuhlise izoqoqosho.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukuya Kuthethwa Ngetyala Elifanelekileyo

IsiHlamlisi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza kunye noluntu ngokubanzi ngabachopheli-tyala abangakhethiyo kwisithili apho ulwaphulo-mthetho lwenziwe khona, ilungelo lokuziswa ngezityholo, ukumangalela amangqina, ukunyanzela ubungqina, nokufumana uncedo lwesiluleko. Ilungelo lokucebisa lanwetshwa ngokuphawulekayo [[FLT: 0]] Gideon v. Wainwright [1963], nto leyo efuna ukuba kunikwe amagqwetha abamangali abangenamali kwiimeko ezibandakanya nokuvalelwa.

  • [[FLT: 0] I-Jurhomessing: Ilungelo kwindlu yabachopheli-tyala engakhethiyo lifuna ukuba ukhetho lwabachopheli lukhulu kucalulo lweentlanga (] Batson v. Kentucky, 1986).
  • Ityala lesantya: Imithetho yeJaji yeCriminal Justice Act nocwangciso lokuvavanya lwangoku lwenjongo yokunqanda ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga ngaphandle kokuvavanywa.

Uhlaziyo Lwesixhenxe: Kufanelekile Ukukuthethelela Kwityala Lamakhaya

Oku kulungiswa kugcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni apho imali exabanayo ingaphezulu lee-dola ezingama-20. Nangona ingadityaniswanga namagunya, ihlala ibalulekile ekuhlawulweni kwetyala likarhulumente, ingakumbi kwi-tort nakwizivumelwano. IsiHlanziso seSebentel siqinisa umgaqo wokuba abemi abaqhelekileyo bamele bagqibe iimpikiswano eziziimbambano, kungekhona abagwebi bodwa.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Uhlaziyo lwesibhozo lukwalela ibheyile egqithisileyo, intlawulo egqithisileyo, nesohlwayo esigqithisileyo nesingaqhelekanga. Ukutolikwa kwayo kujikele impikiswano ngesohlwayo sokufa, iimeko zentolongo, kunye nesigwebo. Iimeko zophawu oluquka Furman v. IGeorgia [7972], ethi okwethutyana yamisa isohlwayo sengcwabo, kunye [[FLT:]R2] r. Simmons [2005], eyalela ukubulawa kwabancinane. I-menti ye-menti iyasilela isohlwayo okwethulo ([FLT:]]] kunye ne-Gram. Florida[FLD: 2010]],

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesi - 1000: Amalungelo Abantu Ayawafumana

ISindululo se-Ninth sithi ukudweliswa kwamalungelo athile kumGaqo-siseko akuzukuthathwa njengokukhanyela okanye ukuhluza abanye abantu. Kwakujoliswe ekulweni noloyiko lokuba ukudwelisa amalungelo athile kungathetha ukuba amanye amalungelo akakho. Ngelixesha engengomthombo wamalungelo athile, akhankanyiwe kumatyala abandakanya ubumfihlo, kuquka [[FL:] [FLD] [Grislold v. Connecticut [1965]) [195] eyathi yaphula umthetho wokuvala ukuthintela ukuthintela, kunye ne-ROV]. WAD .[FLT] [12:3] [7] [7].3].

Uhlaziyo Lweshumi: Ulawulo Olugcinelwe EUnited States

Amagunya eSibonelelo seshumi elinamashumi amathandathu awagunyaziswanga kurhulumente worhulumente okanye awalelwe kumaphondo okanye abantu. Aquka umgaqo wolawulo kunye nomlinganiselo wegunya lorhulumente. Iimeko zakutshanje ezifana ne-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202] kunye ] [NCA][FLT]]) (20:202] kunye nomthetho we-NCA[20:8]) u-Dementi yeshumi lokubetha isiHlamvo sokuhlasela urhulumente. Iyaqhubeka iyingxoxo engundoqo kwiingxoxo ezingongoma ezingokwamalungelo, ukulawulwa kwempilo, kunye nomthetho wemeko-bume.

Imiphumo Engokwentlalo: Indlela IBhili Yamalungelo Eyichaphazela Ngayo IMerika

IBhili yamaLungelo asiyoncwadi nje esemthethweni; iye yaphembelela kakhulu impucuko yaseMerika, imibutho yentlalo nesizwe esiziyo.

Intsebenziswano yamalungelo asekuhlaleni

Kusukela kwinani lamaLungelo elikwindawo yowiso-mthetho ukuya kwiNtlanganiso yamaLungelo kaNoval u1950 kunye nee1960, abaxhasi baye basebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo ukunyanzela okusesikweni. Ukhuseleko loMphengululo wokuqala lwamaGawulayo lwalubalulekile ekulungiseni iNYT, ukuhambelana, nokurhoxa, kunye nokurhoxa. IRevendend Martin Luther King Jr. ngokudumileyo yakhankanya umGaqo-siseko kwi- “Letter ukusuka eBirming Jail." Kamva, umbutho wamalungelo amabhinqa waxhomeke kwiNYY, kunye neMithetho yeshumi elinesine yeMithetho yokuphikisa ukuphikisa inkululeko yokuzala, ngelixa isebenzisa izindululo zoQubo zoQutha zoQutha zoQuqulu .

  • Ubungalingani obusemthethweni: IBhili yamaLungelo, kunye nolungiso lweziHlaliso (13th, 14th, 15th), inikeze isiseko esisemthethweni se Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]) kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo kaNovemba ka 1964.
  • Amalungelo amabhinqa: Ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa (elisekelwe kwingcambu yeyokuqala, yesine, yesihlanu, neyeNinth Izimiliselo) elisekelwe [ Roe v. Wade kunye namatyala alandelayo okuthintela nokulingana kwesini.
  • LBTQ+ amalungelo: Lawrence v. Texas [2003] yabetha imithetho yesodoma (isebenzisa inkqubo ye 1450th Development efunekayo, kwaye ewehlayo [ isebenzise zombini inkqubo efunekayo nekhuselwa ngokufanayo.

Ukukhuthuzwa: Ukwandisa iBhili yamaLungelo

Ekuqaleni, iBhili yamaLungelo yalunqumla kuphela urhulumente wengingqi. Barron v. Baltimore (1833) wakuqinisekisa oku. Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, uHlaziyo lweMiqathango yeshumi elinesine (1868) yaquka iMsebenzi kaClaus eyayisetyenziswa ngokuthe ngcembe ukusebenzisa inkoliso yamaLungelo eBhili eMalungelo karhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Ngenkulungwane yoo-20, zonke izikhuseli eziphambili ngaphandle kweyesithathu, kweSebenth, kunye nelungiselelo elikhulu labachopheli-jaji leNtlethi yeNt. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo angasayi kuphazamisa inkululeko esisiseko, ayile umgangatho ophantsi wamalungelo angaphaya kwelizwe.

Iinkcazelo Neengxaki Zale Mihla

Kwinkulungwane yama-21, iBhili yamaLungelo ijongene nocelomngeni olutsha oluvela kubugcisa, kwinkxalabo yokhuseleko lwesizwe, kunye nokuthatyathwa komgangatho ophakathi kwentlalo. Iinkundla ziyaqhubeka zixhathisa indlela yokusebenzisa umbhalo wenkulungwane ye-18 kwiinyaniso zenkulungwane yama-21.

Ukuthetha Kakhululekileyo Kwixesha Eliqhelekileyo

Ukunyuka kwamaqonga onxibelelwano lwezentlalo-ntle njenge Facebook, Tutter, kunye no-YouTube kuphakamise imibuzo malunga noko kumele ukuba kukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kwi-intanethi. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yangqina ukuba intetho ye-intanethi ikhuselekile, kodwa kusekho imibandela eseleyo: ingaba yiplatfomu abasebenzisi? Ingaba ingaphathwa njengabadlali be- prografiki bezwelo? Ityala elifana Packham v. umNtla we- [2017] [2017]) iqinisekisa ukuba uthetho lwothungelwano lwentlalo luyiyo yengingqini luyifolalwum kawonke-wonke-wonke. Noko ke, impikiswano engaphezulu i-transfonsole, i-ssss ad com iyaqhubeka ivavanya imiday'ul'.

Amalungelo emipu nokhuseleko loluntu

UHlaliso Lwesibini luhlala lungenye yezona ndawo zithe zabekwa phambili. Emva Heller kunye ] uMcDrald[, iinkundla ezisezantsi zixhase imimiselo emininzi yemipu, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithathe imbono ethandabuzekayo. [[FLT:] [FLT]] [[FLT]] u-New York State Rifle & Pistol Association. Bruen[FLT:] [2022], iNkubethi iNew York's iphethe iintambo ezifihlakeleyo, ibambe umthetho oziko okumele ukuba uhambisane nezithethe. Esi sigqibo sikhuthaza ukurhobonqikelelo lwemithetho yompumezo.

Imfihlo kunye noMdla

UHlaliso lwesine lujongene nengcinezelo engapheliyo evela kwiinkqubo zophando zikarhulumente, ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi ngeenkampani, kunye nobugcisa obutsha. USA Patriot Act (2001) Amandla okujonga; kamva utshintsho olufana noMthetho we-USA Freedom (2015) uqikelelo olubuyiselwe kwingqokelela eninzi. INkundla Ephakamileyo iqaphele ukuba abantu balindele ukuba bodwa ngokusengqiqweni kugcino-lwazi lwendawo yeselula yocingo ([ i-Carpert) kodwa iyaqhubeka iphendula imibuzo ngokuphendla ngezixhobo emideni, ukukhangela i-derone, kunye nokwazisa ubuso.

Isohlwayo Sekomkhulu Nohlaziyo Lwesibhozo

Ukwalela kweSinyuso sesibhozo isohlwayo senkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga kuhlala kusesazulu sengxoxo ngesohlwayo sokufa. Ngoxa iNkundla Ephakamileyo ingasiphelisanga ngokupheleleyo isohlwayo sentambo, iye yasinciphisa isicelo sayo sokubulawa kwabantu abakhubazekileyo ngokwasengqondweni (] Attins v. Virginia, 2002]) kunye nabo bangaphantsi kwe-18 ( Right[FLT [FLT]][FLT]]]). Ugwebo olude, ukulindela emgceni wokufa, kunye nokungahambi kohlanga kuye kwakhokelela ekukhuleni kwenkcaso-mjiko kunye ne-modium kumazwa amaninzi.

Isiphelo: IBhili Yamalungelo Emihla ngemihla

IBhili yamaLungelo ayiyonto nje engokwembali. Luxwebhu oluphilayo oluqhubeka lubumba ibutho labantu baseMerika ngendlela ezinzulu. Iziqinisekiso zalo zokubonakalisa inkululeko yonqulo, iimvavanyo ezifanelekileyo, kunye nokuzimela kobuqu zinika isiseko sedemokhrasi exabisa isidima somntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ngokuchukumiseka. Kwangaxeshanye, ukuchanabeka kwayo kunye nomongo wembali kuthetha ukuba isizukulwana ngasinye simele sichaze intsingiselo entsha. Ukusuka kwingxoxo yenkululeko yobuFederali-Anti-Federali kuse kwixesha lamanani, iBhili yamaLungelo ihlala ingumandla anamandla okucelw ’ umngeni, ukucelw'ukucela nokukhusela. Ukuqonda impembelelo yaso kuyimfuneko kuye nawuphi nabani na ubani onqwenela ukuxabisa inkululeko eUnited States nokuthabatha inxaxheba kumsebenzi wokuqinisekisa inkululeko enyamezelayo.