Imbali Ngenkqubo Eyayiza Kulandela

Umgaqo wenkqubo efanelekileyo usekelwe ngokunzulu kwisithethe somthetho sase-Anglo - America, ulandela imvelaphi yayo kwiMagna Carta yowe-1215. U-Claus 39 waloo mgaqo-siseko wavakalisa ukuba akukho mntu ukhululekileyo oya kuthi abanjwe, avalelwe entolongweni, okanye akhutshwe ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe. Olu hlelo lwangaphambili lwaseka ingcamango esisiseko yokuba igunya likarhulumente kubantu ngabanye limele lisetyenziswe ngokwemithetho esemthethweni, hayi ngokokuthanda kokumkani.

Kwiinkulungwane ezininzi, umthetho oqhelekileyo waseNgilani wacombulula ezi zikhuselo nge-habeas corpus, ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwetyala labachopheli-tyala, kunye nokwalelwa komthetho wokuzimela ngokwawo. Xa amaFramente abhalisa umGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, bafaka inkqubo efunekayo kwiSindululo sesihlanu, egunyazisiweyo ngo-1791, enika ukuba akukho mntu uya kuba "ukhutshelwe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Oku kwaqala kwasebenza kurhulumente weSizwe. Emva kwemfazwe yeSizwe, iSinyusombululo se-1458, sagunyaziswa ngo-1868, sanwetyelwa imfuneko efanayo kurhulumente, yenza inkqubo efunekayo yomthetho-mthetho-siseko waseMelika.

Intsingiselo yenkqubo efunekayo iye yatyhilwa ngokuphawulekayo ngenkcazelo yezomthetho. Ekuqaleni, iinkundla zagxininisa ekuchaseni okusesikweni — ziqinisekisa ukuba abantu bafumana isaziso nokuchotshelwa phambi kwenyathelo likarhulumente. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawaqonda amanani aphantsi, ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleleni korhulumente kungakhathaliseki ukuba kusetyenziswa iinkqubo ezinjani. Le nkqubo idibeneyo iyaqhubeka ibumba iingxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni namhlanje.

Iindidi zenkqubela elindelekileyo

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo yenkqubo efunekayo ibuza: Ziziphi iinkqubo urhulumente amele azilandele ngaphambi kokuba ahluthe umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla? Ubuncinane? UmGaqo-siseko ufuna isaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa. Kodwa iimfuno ezichanekileyo zahluka kuxhomekeko lomongo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ku Maws v. Elditridge [[FLT] [12] [77] ichaza uvavanyo olulinganiselweyo olulinganisiweyo olulinganisa oothunywashe abathathu: inzala yobuqu echaphazelekayo phantsi kwemigaqo ekhoyo, nomdla karhulumente (kuquka i-fill nemithwalo yolawulo). Oku kuthetha ukuba ukuvavanywa ngokupheleleyo kusenokufuneka kwimeko yolwaphulo-mthetho, ngoxa ukuva okungeyo kuyimfuneko okufanelekileyo kwintlalo.

Inkqubo efunekayo engokomthetho iyasebenza kwiinkqubo ezininzi: iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho (ekunene ekululekeni, ekukhuphisweni kwamangqina, ekuchotshelweni ngabachopheli-tyala abangakhethiyo), ukuchotshelwa kweenkundla (iinzuzo ezingafanelekanga, uKhuseleko loluntu), ukupheliswa kwemisebenzi yabasebenzi basekuhlaleni, kunye nokuqeqeshwa kwabafundi kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke. Imfuneko engundoqo kukuba urhulumente enze ngokufanelekileyo kwaye anike umntu ithuba elifanelekileyo lokukhuphisana nesenzo.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo engundoqo engundoqo ibuza: Ingaba kukho amalungelo athile abalulekileyo kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuwaphazamisa konke konke, kwanangenkqubo egqibeleleyo? Le mfundiso iye yaphikiswa kodwa ihlala ibalulekile. Griswold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [1965], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yamkela ilungelo lokufumana imfihlo yomtshato, ukubetha ukuvalwa kokuthintela inzala. Reoe v. Wade [[FLT][FLT] [73] [773]) yasebenzisa esi simo sokususa isisu, kunye [[FLT:] "65]. . Hodberged [FL:5] [20]

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ikhusela inkululeko enganyangekiyo esekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sesizwe. Inkundla isebenzisa umlinganiselo wokuhlolisisa ngokungqongqo imithetho ethwele umthwalo wamalungelo asisiseko, efuna urhulumente ukubonisa umdla onyanzelisayo kunye nokulungisa okumxinwa. Noko ke, le mfundiso ayiphelelanga; iNkundla ayizange iwaqaphele ngokulula amalungelo amatsha. Jahington v. Glucksberg [1997], yala urhulumente ukubonisa i-mdlalo lokunceda ukuzibulala, igxininisa ukuba inkululeko kufuneka ikhokelwe yinkcazelo elulayo yelungelo lokuqinisekisa ukuba inyaniseka.

Abahlalutyi bathi inkqubo engafanelekanga ivumela abagwebi ukuba banyanzelise iinjongo zabo zenkqubo. Abakhuseli bayavuma ukuba kubalulekile ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ekuphathweni kwemithetho. Uxinzeleko phakathi kokuthintelwa kwemithetho kunye nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo luyaqhubeka luchaza iingxoxo zomGaqo-siseko zale mihla.

Uphawu lwetyala elikwiNkundla ePhakamileyo eYehlisa Inkqubo Elindelekileyo

[[UMTL:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

[[NTLT:0]. UMila, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ilungelo loMphengululo wesihlanu nxamnye nokuzidityanisa lifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abarhanelwa ngamalungelo awo okuthula nokuba negqwetha elikhoyo ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya. Isiphumo imanda] izilumkiso [ [ii-FLT]] ithenjiwe yinkqubo eqhelekileyo ye-Politiki yaseMelika. Le meko iqinisekisa ukuba abantu abakwindawo yokugcinwa kwamapolisa bayakuqonda ukukhuselwa kwabo ngokobukhotho-mthetho phambi kokuba bahlolwe. Ngaphandle kwezilumkiso ezinjalo, nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi na inkcazelo efumaneka jikelele ifumaneka kwinkundla ehambayo.

[[UMTL: 0] Goldberg v. Kelly (1970)

Eli tyala lithetha ngenkqubo efunekayo kwimongo yeengenelo zentlalo-ntle. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba xa urhulumente efuna ukuphelisa iinzuzo zomamkeli, kufuneka anikezele ukuva okucacileyo kwangaphambili, kuquka ilungelo lokunikela ubungqina kunye nokujamelana namangqina angalunganga. Goldberg[ inkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela kwimo yolawulo, eqonda ukuba inzuzo karhulumente ingenza uhlobo oluthile lwempahla. Isigqibo sikhuthaza intshukumo ebanzi eqhubekayo kwimibutho ekwimeko ephakathi yabameli esuka kukhuseleko loluntu ukuya kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke.

[[UMTL: 0] Roe v. Iphepha [[UMTL] [1] (1973)

Nangona kamva inikwe igunya eligqithisileyo yi yamaDobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa akwiNtlanganiso yezempilo [202], Roe yayiyinkqubo ephawulayo yenkqubo esezantsi efunekayo. INkundla yafumana ukuba ilungelo lokuba wedwa, liqulethwe kwiNkqutyana ye-Celasme, lifake isigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Ngelixesha impikiswano enzulu, [[FLT:] ROe ibonisa indlela inkqubo efunekayo esezantsi enokukhusela ngayo i-EXEXOS ekungeneni. Le meko ihlala isembindini kwingxoxo emalunga nobungakanani bobuntunja.

[[UMTL: 0] Amathews v. Eldridge (1976)

Eli tyala laseka isiseko sangoku sokumisa inkqubo efunekayo. Inkundla yathi inkqubo efanelekileyo ithambile kwaye ifuna ukulungelelanisa umdla wabucala, umngcipheko wempazamo, nomdla karhulumente. . [Ku], iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba iingenelo zokukhubazeka kweNtlalo ziphele ngaphandle kokuva kwangaphambili, ixesha elide njengoko iinkqubo zolawulo zazilungelelene.

[[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

.Obergefell, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iSindululo soMgaqo-nkqubo seshumi elinesine u-Claus siqinisekisa ilungelo lomtshato ofanayo. INkundla yaqiqa ukuba umtshato lilungelo elingundoqo, kwaye iyawukhanyela izibini ezingokwasemgaxeni ziwahlutha inkululeko ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo esezantsi efunekayo ikhusela ilungelo lokutshata, kuquka ukhetho lokuba kutshate nomntu otshate naye, njengenxalenye yemithetho yesiseko.

Inkqubela Kwimfundo

Izikolo zikawonke-wonke kufuneka ziwahlonele amalungelo afanelekileyo abafundi xa zimisela imiyalelo yoqeqesho. Gos v. Lopez [1997], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni abafundi abajamelene nokuthunjwa kweentsuku ezilishumi okanye ezingaphantsi banelungelo lokuphawula izityholo kunye nethuba lokuva — noko ingxubusho engacwangciswanga namagosa esikolo. Ukuxoxa okanye ukugxothwa, iinkqubo ezininzi ezisesikweni zisenokufuneka, kuquka ilungelo lokubiza amangqina, nokunqumla amangqina angalunganga.

Oku kukhusela kusebenza kwizikolo zikarhulumente kuba imithetho enyanzelekileyo yokuya kubafundi inika umdla kwimfuno yempahla kwimfundo yabo. Amagosa ezikolo kufuneka alungelelanise imfuneko yengqeqesho yocwangco kunye nobulungisa bomgaqo-siseko.

  • Iphepha lokwenza: umfundi kufuneka aziswe ngehambo engalunganga echaziweyo echazweyo kunye neziphumo ezinokwenzeka.
  • [[UMTL:0] ova: Umfundi kufuneka abe nethuba elibalulekileyo lokunikela icala lakhe phambi komenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso.
  • Isigqibo kufuneka sisekelwe kobunye ubungqina, hayi ngokungekho ngqiqweni okanye ngokushwankathela.
  • [[UMTL:0] Appal: Isithili ezininzi zinika inkqubo yezigqibo ezinomtsalane.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iyasebenza nakwezinye izenzo zesikolo, ezifana neempikiswano, iziqinisekiso ezikhethekileyo zemfundo, nokuphengulula kunye nokuphangwa ngamagosa ezikolo. Umthetho weSine woLawulo owenziwe ngokungekho ngqiqweni unyanzeliswa kwizikolo phantsi komgangatho wokukrokrela okusengqiqweni, hayi ngenxa elindelekileyo, ebonisa iimfuno ezikhethekileyo zemeko-bume yesikolo. Noko ke, abafundi abawanikezeli onke amalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwisango lendlu yesikolo.

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Kwixesha lamanani

Ubugcisa bezi mini buphakamisa imibuzo emitsha efunekayo. Xa urhulumente eqhuba uphando lwezombane, ebamba icell phone, okanye esebenzisa i-algoriths ukwenza izigqibo malunga neengenelo, yiyiphi inkqubo ebotshelelweyo? INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba ukuphengulula isiganeko seselfowuni ukubanjwa kusoloko kufuna isiqinisekiso, ukwamkela inani elikhulu logcino-lwazi lobuqu lwale zixhobo ezi zinto ziqulathiwe. I-Carpenter v. United States [2088], iNkuphendulo ithetha indlela urhulumente afumana ngayo iingxelo zeseli-cell-ethe-ate ezisuka kuvavanyo olune olune. Ngexesha elifanelekileyo, [[FLT:]

Ngokufanayo, iinkqubo zokwenziwa kwesigqibo ezisetyenziswa ngabameli bakarhulumente — umzekelo, ukufumanisa ukuba kufanelekile ukungenelwa kokungasebenzi okanye ukuqikelela ukusetyenziswa kwakhona komthetho ogwetywa ngolwaphulo-mthetho — kufuneka zinikezele ukhuseleko olwaneleyo lweprocedturial. Ukuba i-algorithm ikhusela umntu ngemposiso njengongaqondakaliyo, ingasivavanya isigqibo? Ingaba inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuba amanani asebenze njani? Le mibuzo isemacaleni omgaqo-siseko, kwaye iinkundla ezisezantsi zingquzulana nazo ngaphandle kolwalathiso olucacileyo lweNkuNkundla ePhakathi.

Iingxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Ukuxilonga nokuxilonga okugqithiseleyo

I-United States inelona qondo liphezulu lokuvalelwa kwilizwe elihambele phambili. Ukuvalelwa kwabantu ngemingxube yetyala ngendlela efunekayo ngeendlela ezininzi. Abakhuseli abathwali kakhulu abanako ukunikela uncedo olusebenzayo lwesiluleko. IPlea icebisa, egqiba amatyala angama-95%, idla ngokunyanzela abamangalelwa abangenatyala ukuba bamangalelwe ngetyala ukuba baphephe ubuncinane obungqongqo obunyanzelekileyo obunyanzelekileyo. Ilungelo lokuchotshelwa liqinisekiswe ngokomthetho, kodwa inkqubo yeqhinga layo. Abahlalutyisi baphikisa ngelithi oku kululaza isiqinisekiso esingundoqo senkqubo ye-adversarial.

Ukongezelela, uqheliselo lwebheyile — apho abamangalelwa bebanjwa ngaphambi kokuba bagwetywe ngenxa yokuba bengenakukwazi ukufikelela iqhina — ngokunempumelelo bohlwaye abantu phambi kokuqiniseka. United States v.Salerno[ [1987], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukuvalelwa kokuthintelwa kodwa kuphela phantsi kweemeko ezilinganiselweyo. Noko ke, amazwe amaninzi ayaqhubeka ebamba abantu abaphantsi ngenxa yobuhlwempu, anyusa imicimbi efunekayo.

Ukwahluka Kobuhlanga

Ukwahluka kobuhlanga kugqugqise inkqubo yobulungisa yolwaphulo-mthetho. Uphando lubonisa ukuba abantu abamnyama nababhila-bhabhayo badla ngokubanjwa, babekwe ityala letyala elinzulu, bagwetyelwe amabinzana amade kunabantu abamhlophe ngenxa yehambo efanayo. Ezi zahlukaniso zingasuka kumthetho ojongene nocalucalulo, imigaqo egwetywayo, kunye nekhethe elicacileyo. Ngoxa iSahlulo soLungelo luka Claus sisixhobo esiphambili somgaqo-siseko sokwenza ucelo lwecalulo, inkqubo efunekayo idlala indima. Umzekelo, Bhatson. [[FLT]] [1986], iNkundla, iNkundla yakholelwa ukuba ucaluvo oluluko lungalulo olufanelekileyo nolulo lokhetho lwetyala lungamele ukhuseleko.

Ubuhlanga obusetyenziswayo bungabonakala kwiinkqubo ngokwabo. Umzekelo, "izibheno ezintathu" imithetho ephosa izigwebo zobomi kubaphuli-mthetho abangenazo ugonyamelo bangabethwa ingxengxezo njengokwaphula inkqubo efunekayo engaphantsi ukuba ayilingani. Noko ke, uhlolo lolungelelwaniso lweNkundla phantsi kweSength Amendment (equka imigaqo efunekayo) ilinganiselwe. Ukuthetha ngezahlulo zobuhlanga kudinga utshintsho kwimithetho yomthetho, ukutshutshisa, ukugweba, kunye nelungiselelo lesiluleko.

Ukungena nokuQhubelana

Iingxoxo zokurhoxa kwityala zithetha ukurhoxa koluntu, kungekhona ulwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa zinokubangela ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhuphe ityala — ukuncishwa kwenkululeko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathi abantu abangangeni mvume banelungelo lokukhupha iziphumo ezifanelekileyo kwinkqubo yokususa. Padilla v. Kentucky [2010] [2010], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba amagqwetha ezolwaphulo-mthetho amele acebise abaxhasi abangangeni mvume yokungena exesheni ngeziphumo zokungena etyala. Noko ke, inkqubo efunekayo kwinkundla yabafuduki idla ngokuba buthathaka kunenkundla yolwaphulo-mthetho: akukho lungelo lokumiselwa ngesiluleko esingangeni-ntle, kunye nomgangatho wobungqina obufanelekileyo "gracleast" kunokuba ithandabuze "ubungqina obusengqiqweni"

Ukuvalelwa komngxuma kukwanyusa imicimbi efunekayo. Ekubeni ukuvalelwa kukwindawo yoluntu, kusenokungabinasiphelo kwezinye iimeko, nangona iNkundla ikwi- Zadvydas v. Davis (2001) ibeke umlinganiselo wenyanga ezintandathu wokuvalelwa okunxulumene nokususwa. Ingxelo esemva kwiinkundla zokufuduka, imalunga namakhulu amawaka amatyala athe aphelweyo, ithetha ukuba abantu abaninzi balindele ukuchotshelwa iminyaka emininzi — ukulibazisa ngokwako okunokuthi kungqubanise inkqubo efanelekileyo ukuba ikhethelwe ukunikela ubungqina obukhoyo.

Ukubulawa Ngokwesini

Ukusingathwa kwezityholo zokuhlasela ngokwesini ezikolejini kuye kwaba yinkqubo efunekayo yedabi ledabi. Imigaqo yomkhosi phantsi kweSihloko se-VI ne-Title IX ifuna izikolo ziphande zize zicombulule izikhalazo ngokukhawuleza. Kodwa ingakanani inkqubo ebotshelelwe abafundi abamangalelwayo? Iinkundla zahlukene. Abanye bafuna ukuthethwa ngokuphi na ngokunqamleza; abanye bavumela imodeli enye yophando. ISebe lemfundo ye-20X imiyalelo egunyazinziwa ukuba zihlale zivakala kwaye zinqumle ngabalawuli beBden. Le mithetho yarhoxiwa kamva yimithetho yolawulo lweBden, ishiya izikolo zinemilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo.

Doe v. IYunivesithi yasePennsylvania (2021]), iFektha Yesithathu ikholelwa ukuba iyunivesithi kawonke-wonke kufuneka inike abafundi abatyholwayo isaziso, ubungqina, kunye nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuphendula. INkundla ePhakamileyo ayikagqibi imigaqo efunekayo kwizifundo zemfundo, kodwa intsingiselo ibhekiselwa ekufuneni iinkqubo ezithe rhoqo xa izibonda — njengengxingxelo okanye itransfum ezisisigxina — iphezulu.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo esebenzayo nebalulekileyo ihlala ingukhuseleko kwisenzo soburhulumente esingunozala. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yayo eMagna Carta ukuya kwizicelo zayo zangoku zokuhlola amanani, ukufuduka, kunye nesohlwayo sasezikolweni, lo mgaqo ufuna ukuba urhulumente abaphathe abantu ngokusesikweni, ngokucaceyo, nangentlonelo ngamalungelo asisiseko. Njengoko ibutho liguquka, iingxaki ezintsha ziza kuqhubeka zivavanya imida efunekayo. Abafundi kunye nabafundisi-mfundo kufuneka baqonde ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo asiyonkqubo esisigxina kodwa sisithembiso esiphilayo — eso sifuna ukulumka, ukuguqula, nokuzibophelela kokusesikweni kwabo bonke.

Ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya, bona i [[FLT: 0] Iprojekthi yoqwalaselo kwinkqubela elindelekileyo, iCornell Legin Information Institute , kunye ne [[FLT] iprojekthi ye-Oyez [[[FLT:]] [FLT]] kwimeko yokushwankathela nempikiswano zomlomo.