IsiHlanzi seshumi Elinane: ISibonda Samalungelo Abantu BaseMerika Nobulungisa

IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesine soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States simi njengenye yezona zixhobo zomthetho ezitshintshayo kwimbali yaseMerika. Siqinisekisiwe ngoJulayi 9, 1868, ebudeni bexesha lokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo, sayilwa ukuqinisa ukuma okusemthethweni kwabantu ababekade bengamakhoboka, nokumisela umgangatho wesizwe wokuba babe ngabemi, balingana, kunye nobulungisa obusisiseko. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane enesiqingatha kamva, le ngxaki ihlala ihleli kwintliziyo yezona mpikiswano ziphambili zesizwe ngamalungelo oluntu, inkululeko yobuqu, kunye nemilinganiselo efanelekileyo yegunya likarhulumente. Imiqatha yesizwe ukwenzela ukuba babe ngabemi, uClaus, i-Claus, i-Clasclee, kunye noKhuselo olulinganayo olukwizi ndlela ezisemthethweni, ekucingeni kwesiseko sobugqeshobo, ukulingana, namalungelo amanani angakumbi, namanani amanani amanani amanani amanani amanani amanani angokutshona.

Imbali: Ukwakha Isiseko Esitsha Emva Kwemfazwe Yamakhaya

Ibali loMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine liqala kuthuthu lwemfazwe yamakhaya. Ngonyaka ka-1865, i-United States yajamelana nomsebenzi omkhulu wokuhlanganisa kwakhona ilizwe elaphukileyo lodwa ngeli xesha lichaza kwakhona isimo sama-Afrika asandul' ukukhululwa. UMthetho weSimendo weshumi elinesithathu, wagunyaziswa ngoDisemba 1865, wawuwuphelise ngokusemthethweni umcimbi obalulekileyo, kodwa washiya imibuzo echaphazelekayo engobumishicine bobumi, ukhuseleko olusemthethweni, kunye namalungelo ezobupolitika. UMzantsi uthelela ngokukhawuleza "Imithetho Engalawuleki" eyathi isithi inguMdabi yenkululeko yamaMerika aseAfrika asandul' ekhululekileyo, ivelise inkqubo ekwamkele ucalucalucalucalulo eyathise ngokuneyo eyathisayo ekwayijongeneenjongo yokunga kungene ukulawulwa kwemvume.

Ngempendulo, iRiphabliki elawulwayo yadlulisela uMthetho wamaLungu ka-1866, owavakalisa ukuba bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States babengabemi kwaye banelungelo lokukhuselwa ngokufanayo phantsi komthetho. UMongameli uAndrew Johnson warhoxa lo msebenzi, kodwa iKhomishini yalawula i-veto yakhe. Noko ke, inkxalabo ngesenzo somgaqo-siseko kunye noziko lwexesha elide lweBhunga lokukhuthaza ukutshintsha imigaqo yayo engundoqo phantsi komthetho-siseko. Isiphumo yaba yiNgqolo-1456, eyadlula kwiNgqungquthela ngoJuni 18666 kwaye yavunywa ziikota ezintathu ezifunekayo kumazwe ngoJulayi 1868.

Ukulungisa yayilucelomngeni olungqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ePhakamileyo uDred Scott v. Sandford [1857], eyayivakalise ukuba akukho mmi waseAfrika wase-Melika onokuba ngummi wase-U.S. Ijolise ekupheliseni iMithetho eBlack System nokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unegunya lokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye nolwaphulo-mthetho. Inkqubo yokwandiswa yayizingxabano, namazwe asemazantsi yayifuneka ukuvumela ukuthunyelwa kwemithetho ye-U. Oku kugxininisa injongo yokuqala yezopolitiki: ukuseka umyalelo omtsha osekelwe kwi-bumi bobumi bobumi.

Amalungiselelo: Ubumi, Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Nokhuseleko Olulinganayo

ISihlaziyo seshumi elinesine silungelelaniswe saba ngamacandelo amahlanu, kodwa icandelo lokuqala liqulethe amacandelo amathathu aye aba nempembelelo enkulu kumthetho nasebuthweni laseMerika:

Ummi UClaus

Isigwebo sokuqala seCandelo 1 simisela ingcaciso ecacileyo nequka ubumi besizwe: "Bonke abantu abazalwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kwaye bephantsi kwegunya labo, ngabemi baseUnited States kunye noRhulumente apho behlala khona. Eli binzana limiselwe igunya Dered Scott kwaye layila umgangatho olinganayo wokuba ngummi wobuzibulo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba buhlanga okanye ubuzwe. Lihlala lisisiseko esisemthethweni sokuba ngubumi baseUnited States, umgaqo oye waxhaswa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ziinkundla kwaye uyaqhubeka usiba ngumbandela wengxoxo yezopolitiko.

Inkqubela KaClaus

IThe Bay Process Claus ithi, alikho ityala eliya "kukhusela nabani na wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Eli lungiselelo linwebela inkqubo efunekayo yeSigqibo sesihlanu sokuzinzisa isiqinisekiso kurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ingcamango eyaziwa ngokuba kukuquququzelelwa. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa i-Sent Procesting Claus eninzi yokhuseleko kuMphathi-mthetho wamalungelo e-Roll of Rights, okanye kwiNcomstion. Le nkqubo i-agement iqinisekisa ukuba uphatho lwezixhobo, kunye nokhuseleko kumazwe angaqikelelwanga olungekho ngqiqweni, ikhusela amalungelo athile angundoqo "ekho kwingcamango yenkululeko," ukuba athe abekwangahlelwangalulanga kwinkqubo yomthetho. Le nkqubo i-globane yezomGenethi yezobugromatiki, ibandakanya kwimicimbi yemicimbi yemiGene, kunye nemicimbi yemithel.

Ukukhusela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

I-Unimeal Protection Claus iyalela ukuba akukho rhulumente "oya kuthanda nabani na okwigunya lakhe ukukhusela okulinganayo kwemithetho." Eli lungiselelo liyisiseko somGaqo-siseko somthetho ochasene nocalucalulo lwaseMelika. Kufuna ukuba abantu ngokufanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo, kwaye inika amandla iinkundla ukuba zibethe imithetho efaka imigaqo esekelwe kuhlanga, ubufana, okanye ezinye izigaba ezirhanelwayo. I-Omeal Protect Classiasme ibisithutholo kuninzi lweempumelelo zamalungelo abantu embalini yaseMelika, ukusuka ekuhlalisweni kwemithetho yezikolo ukuya ekutshatisweni ngokusemthethweni.

Uphawu Lwetyala LeNkundla Ephakamileyo Echaza Uhlaziyo

Intsingiselo yeSinyuso seshumi elinesine iye yatshintshwa ngothotho lwezigwebo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezivavanye yaza yandisa ukufikelela kwayo. Amanye amatyala anempembelelo aquka:

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Mhlawumbi akukho tyala linxulumene ngokusondeleyo noMphetho-mvakalo weshumi elinesine Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Kwisigqibo sadibeneyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavakalisa ukuba ucalulo lwesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwaphula uKhuselo lwe-Celassias. INkundla yakwalathisa "ukulingana" imfundiso esungulwe engekho mthethweni. Fergusonson[ [1866], ibambe ezo ndawo zemfundo ezahlukeneyo zazingalingani. Brown[FLT] ayizange iphele ngoko nangoko, kodwa yalungiselela isiseko esisemthethweni nesomthetho soburhulumente kunye nomthetho ophefumlelweyo, kuquka amaLungelo e-Octive .

[[UMTL: 0] Roe v. Iphepha [[UMTL] [1] (1973)

[[NTLT: 0]. IRedev v. , iNkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa phantsi kwe-Seed Processol Claus. INkundla yathi ilungelo lokuzimela, elalifunyaniswe ngaphambili licacile kwingqiqo yeNkqulu-nganiso yeshumi elinesine yenkululeko yobuqu, lalibanzi ngokwaneleyo ukuquka isigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Roe yayisinye sezigqibo ezithandazwayo kwimbali yeMelika, yaye ekugqibeleni yabhukuqwa [FLT:] [4].IIIIintlanganiso yamaP.IKLD [FLT] [5]

[[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Ku [[NTLT:0] obergefell v. Hodges, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi uLawulo lwe 14 lufuna imithetho yokunika imvume nokuqaphela imitshato efanayo. INkundla yagunyazisa isigqibo sayo kuzo zombini i-Sect Process Claus, ekhusela ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata, kunye ne-Otencial Provincial Provice Claus, enqabela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo. Umthetho wawululo olubalaseleyo lweLBTQ+ amalungelo kwaye wabonakalisa ubuchule bokwenza ulungelelaniso nokufikelela ekuqondeni ukulingana nesidima.

Ezinye Iimeko Ezibalulekileyo

  • [FLT] GITLOW v. New York (25): Wasebenzisa uKhuseleko lwenkululeko yokuthetha yoLuhlulo lokuqala kumazwe ukudlula kwiNkqubo elindelekileyo ka Claus, uqala inkqubo yokubandakanya.
  • ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967): Imithetho karhulumente evala umtshato wezizwe ngezizwe, ibambe ukuba imithetho enjalo yaphula umthetho woMxokelelwano oThenjiweyo noKhuselo olulinganayo.
  • [[UMTLL:0] 'Ivithiwe v. Ijoyinti (1971): okokuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa uKhuselo olulinganayo Clause ukubetha umthetho ocalulweyo ngesiseko sesondo.
  • [[NTL:0][FLT]McDonald v. Chicago [2010] Iquka uHlaziyo lwesibini lungelo lokugcina nokuthwala iintambo nxamnye norhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni ukutyhubela Inkqubo ka Claus.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nawokusesikweni

ISindululo seshumi elinesine sisesona sixhobo sibalulekileyo ekulweni okusesikweni nokulinganayo kwale mihla.

Ukulingana Kobuhlanga

Umlo nxamnye nocalucalulo lobuhlanga uyaqhubeka uxhomekeke kakhulu kwiNkundla kaClaus elinganayo. Amatyala akutshanje aye athetha ngoyezo lwemfundo ephezulu, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nokuguqulwa kobulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho. Izikhankanyi ze Fair Adgicts v. Harvard [2023], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakholelwa ukuba iinkqubo zokuvuma uhlanga ekholejini zaphula umgangatho olinganayo wokhuseleko luka Clausleas, ngokubalulekileyo iguqula umgaqo osemthethweni wendlela zokwahlukahlukana.

Ukulingana kwendoda nenkosikazi

I-Acticome Protection Claus ingundoqo ekuqhubeni amalungelo amabhinqa. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yasebenzisa yona ukubetha imithetho ephatha amadoda namabhinqa ngokwahlukileyo ngaphandle kokugwetywa okubalulekileyo. Iityala ezibandakanya ucalucalulo emsebenzini, amalungelo okumitha, kunye nokukhathazwa ngokwesini zonke zibekwe phantsi koMphetho-mva-mvakaliso weshumi elinesine, kusecaleni kwemimiselo yesizwe njengeSiHloko VII.

Amalungelo

Icandelo 2 loMphetho-Mphetho weshumi elinesine linika unciphiso kumelo lwequmrhu lombuso ukuba liyala ilungelo lokuvota ukufaneleka kwabemi. Ngoxa eli lungiselelo lingafane linyanzeliswe, imigaqo ebanzi yokulungisa i-ID, i-gerrymander, kunye nezinye izenzo ezithi kuthiwe zichase i-odoli abambalwa abavoti. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sokuvota sikwi- Shelby County v. Ubarer[FLT] [20:3], eziye zafaka phantsi izicwangciso zamalungelo eVolgardering, zikhokelele kwingqalelo ye-Dinjini e-Geneardentiat , ezithiwenziswe kwisigqibo sokurhoxina kwe-DSccelo.

Amalungelo Abaphambukeli

Ubumi bukaClaus buye baba lukhuselo olubalulekileyo abantwana bafuduka, beqinisekisa ukuba nabani na ozalelwe kumhlaba wase-U.S. ngummi kungakhathaliseki ukuba abazali babo bakwindawo enjani na. Lo mgaqo uye wacelw'elwa imbambano yezobupolitika kodwa uye waxhaswa rhoqo ziinkundla. I-ST Procestion Claus ikwakhusela amalungelo abantu abangengobafuduki kummandla wase-U.S.

Okusesikweni Nezenzo Zezaphuli - mthetho

I-System Processor Clause lisiseko somgaqo-nkqubo wolwaphulo-mthetho waseMerika, ufuna iityala ezifanelekileyo, amatyala angakhethi buso, kunye nokhuseleko ekuncinwa kwemiba ephakathi. I-Cemetic Protection Clause iye yasetyenziselwa ukucel ’ umngeni ukuphendla ukukhutshwa kohlanga, ukugwetywa kolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nezinye izenzo ezichaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto imimandla emincinane. Umbutho obanzi wotshintsho lwamapolisa nowezohlwayo lolwaphulo-mthetho usoloko ubiza isiqinisekiso se-14 Demendment.

Imfundo NoMthetho - melo Weshumi Eline

Ukuqonda uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine kubalulekile kubafundi nakubafundisi- ntsapho ngokufanayo. Lunikela isiseko sokuxubusha ngamalungelo abantu, okusesikweni, nembali yentlalo yaseMerika. Abaqeqeshi bangasebenzisa le nkcazelo ukukhuthaza ukucingela ukulingana nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye.

Ukufundisa Iindlela Zokufundisa

  • Yibani nabafundi kwiingxubusho eziphathelele imibandela yanamhlanje enxulumene noMphetho - melo we - 14, njengokuvuma, amalungelo okuvota nokufuduka.
  • Hlola amatyala abalaseleyo eNkundla Ephakamileyo eklasini, usebenzisa izinto ezisisiseko ezifana neembono zenkundla neempikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo.
  • Khuthaza abafundi ukuba benze uphando baze babonise indlela oku oku okuchaphazela ngayo amaqela athile namhlanje, kuquka abantu abambalwa, amabhinqa, abantu abangabantu ngabanye, nabantu abangaphiliyo.
  • Sebenzisa imithambo edlala indima apho abafundi baphikisana ngamacala omabini ombuzo womgaqo-siseko, bewanceda aqonde imilinganiselo ekhuphisanayo esengozini kwiMiqathango yeshumi elinesine yoLawulo oluLawulweyo.
  • Thelekisa uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine kunye namalungiselelo afanayo kumgaqo-siseko wamanye amazwe, njengakukuqinisekisiso lokulingana kwiSicangca samalungelo nenkululeko saseKhanada okanye kumGaqo-siseko wamaIndiya.

La maqhinga anokubanceda abafundi baqonde intsingiselo yoMthetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine kwibutho lanamhlanje aze abalungiselele ukuba babe ngabemi abathenjiweyo.

Iingxaki Nempikiswano

ISindululo seshumi elinesine siyaqhubeka sivelisa impikiswano enzulu engokwasemthethweni nezobupolitika. Iingxoxo eziliqela eziqhubekayo zibonisa ukubaluleka kokulungisa okuqhubekayo:

Ukuba ngummi Ofanelekileyo

Ingingqi ka-Claus ijongene neengxaki zexesha elithile kwabo baphikisa ukuba ubumi bukhuthaza ukufuduka okungekho mthethweni. Abanye abenzi bemithetho baye bacebisa ukuba kumiselwe umthetho wokuchaza kwakhona igalelo, kodwa iingcali ezingokwasemthethweni ziyavuma ukuba naluphi na utshintsho luyakufuna ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko. INkundla Ephakamileyo ayikhange ithethe ngqo ngobungakanani bobuSizwe buka-Clauskaus ukususela kwityala United States v. Wong Kim Arking[, eliqinisekisa ubumi babantwana bobunyulu bamazwe angoomatilo.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Imfundiso yenkqubo encinci efunekayo ihlala iphikiswa kakhulu. Abahlalutyi bathi ivumela abagwebi ukuba bafunde izikhethelo zabo zomgaqo-nkqubo kumGaqo-siseko, ngeli xesha abaxhasi bemi ngelithi ikhusela inkululeko esisiseko efunekayo kwibutho elikhululekileyo. Ingxoxo ibikhaliphe kakhulu ukususela ekuguqukeni kwe Roe v. Wade, kunye nabanye abagwebi bathandabuza ukufaneleka kwendlela efunekayo yokungena kwi-patrotistiki ngokupheleleyo, nabanye bebiza ukusondela okuthintelweyo.

Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Nesenzo Esizinzisayo

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zakutshanje ziphakamise imibuzo emitsha malunga nentsingiselo yokhuseleko olulinganayo. Izigqibo zeMali yeFair Admississ ityala, iNkundla yathi iinkqubo zokuvuma ugqatso lohlanga ngengxelo enzulu kwimfundo ephezulu zaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo luka Clausle, kodwa yashiya kuvuleka ithuba lokuba uhlanga lungaqwalaselwa kwezinye iimeko, njengasemkhosini. Isigqibo siye sashukumisela iiyunivesithi ukuba ziqwalasele ezinye iindlela zokukhuthaza iiyantlukwano, kwaye idibaniselele iingxoxo ngendima yohlanga kubomi baseMelika.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli LoMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwemibini

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo lusasoloko luyisiseko sedemokhrasi yaseMerika. Ukugxininisa kwalo ekulinganani kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo kuye kwaguqula ulawulo lwasemthethweni kwaye kuyaqhubeka kuphembelela ukulwela amalungelo abantu. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yayo emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya ukuya ekusebenzeni kwayo kweyona miba ixinzelelekileyo yentlalo yenkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesithathu, ukuguquka kungqineke kuyinto engqinelayo nelungeleleneyo yezobulungisa. Ukuqonda oku kuxhomekeke ekufundeni imbali kunye neengxaki zayo eziqhubekayo zokusesikweni. Ayingombhalo nje wembali kodwa luxwebhu olusebenzayo olukhuthaza isizukulwana ngasinye ukuba sicinge ngentsingiselo yobumi, inkululeko, kunye nokulingana phantsi komthetho.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, qwalasela ukuhlolisisa umbhalo opheleleyo womGaqo-siseko ngeZiko loBuzwe , ukujonga amatyala embali yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiprojekthi ye-Oyez, okanye uhlolo lohlalutyo lobungcali kwiZiko loLwazi