IsiHlaziyo Seshumi Eline: Intsika Yomgangatho WaseMerika

I-Gazethiwe ngo-1868, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States luye lwafana nesona sixhobo siphambili sokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye nokuqinisekisa unyango olulinganayo phantsi komthetho waseMerika. Nangona injongo yaso yayikukukhusela amalungelo abantu ababekade bekhotyokiswa yimfazwe yamakhaya, ukutshintsha kwale nkqubo kubaluleke kakhulu ukuyiqonda indlela ehamba ngayo inkqubo yemithetho-siseko yokulungisa isakhiwo, nobundlobongela bembali, iingcaciso-mthetho, ii-reji zemithetho esemthethweni, abafundisi, kunye nabemi ababotshelelweyo, i-1459th Amelika, iPramentelligementations ibalulekile ekuqondeni indlela esetyenziswa ngayo inkqubo esemthethweni, inkqubo efunekayo nobumi. Eli nqaku lilungiselela ukuhamba okubanzi ngembali, izicwangciso-siseko, iinkcazelo ze-dekstnadiant, neengxoxo zaleediant zale mihla, kunye neengxoxo zale mihla.

Imeko yembali: Ukusuka Kwimeko Ukusa Kwisiqinisekiso SomGaqo-siseko

Iminyaka emine yemfazwe yamakhaya (1861-1865) yaphela ubukhoboka obusemthethweni, kodwa umthetho osemthethweni wamaMelika aseAfrika asandul' ukukhululwa wahlala engaqinisekanga ngokuyingozi. Umongameli uAbraham Lincoln u-Emancip Proclation ka-1863 waba ngumlinganiselo wexesha lemfazwe, kunye noMmiselo weshumi elinesithathu (ogunyazisiweyo ngoDisemba 1865). Noko ke, ngokukhawuleza amaphondo aseMazantsi awisa umthetho owenzelwe ukuphelisa inkululeko yabaNtlangalamlamlamla, abakhanyela ilungelo lokuvota, impahla, okanye abangqinela enkundleni yenkundla, kwaye ngokufanelekileyo abakhupha kwimo yesibini.

Ngempendulo, iBhunga elinyanzelwe yiRiphabliki ladlulisela iSivumelwano samaLungu sonyaka we-1866, esavakalisa ukuba bonke abantu abazalwe eUnited States babengabemi kwaye banelungelo lokukhuselwa ngokufanayo kwimithetho. Kodwa uMongameli uAndrew Johnson warhoxa ityala, kwaye ngoxa iNkqutyana ingaphezulu kwe-veto, abenzi bemithetho-mthetho abaninzi babexhalabile ukuba isenzo kamva sibuyiselwe okanye sivakaliswe ukuba asimiselwanga sicathulo. Ukubeka le migaqo kwisiseko somgaqo-siseko esingagwegwegwe, iBhunga leNko layama-Prochurekho laya laya kulawula iSinyuso seWaneth Amedi. Iziganeko eziphambili zembali ezibunjwa ngulo ziquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] Isiphelo semfazwe yamakhaya (1865) – yenza imfuneko engxamisekileyo yokuchaza ubume obusemthethweni babantu abatsha abangamawaka amane abakhululweyo.
  • Umthetho wamaLungelo oMsebenzi wango1866 – wabonakalisa umthetho oza kulungiselela ukulingana kodwa ongenawo umGaqo-siseko ohlala uhleli.
  • Ukwanda kogonyamelo olumhlophe oluvelayo olungekho mgangathweni , ingakumbi iKu Klux Klan, eyabangela ukonakalisa uluntu olumnyama kwaye yathoba inkululeko.
  • [[UMTL:0] I-Military reconstruction – uMzantsi wawuphantsi komsebenzi worhulumente, unika umongo wezopolitiko ukwenzela ulwahlulo.
  • Uloyiko lokuba amazwe asemazantsi anokuqengqeleka abuyele kumalungelo oluntu ngokukhawuleza xa evunyiwe kwi-Union.

Isivumelwano sokulungisa sadluliswa kweKhonklamente ngoJuni 1866 savunywa yimfuno yamazwe amathathu anesine ngoJulayi 1868. Abaququzeleli bayo babezimisele ukuba ibe sisiqinisekiso esiqinisekileyo sokhuseleko lwamalungelo orhulumente nxamnye nokungena.

Amalungiselelo Ayintloko OMthetho We - 14 Wokwenziwa Komthetho

Utshintsho luquka amacandelo amahlanu, kodwa icandelo lokuqala liqulethe ezona zigaba zibalulekileyo ezintathu: i-Claus yokuba nguMntu, i-Sigqeba sika-Claus, i-Act Claus Procesme, kunye ne-Communiment Proces. Amanye amacandelo anika ulwahlulo, ukuncitshiswa kwamagosa angaphambili angumbutho, amatyala kawonke-wonke, namandla okunyanzelisa.

Ummi UClaus

Icandelo 1 liqala ngamazwi acacileyo acacileyo nangoko aguqula iinguqu: “Bonke abantu abazalwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kunye nabaphantsi kwegunya labo, ngabemi baseUnited States kunye noRhulumente apho behlala khona." Eli binzana lasibhukuqa ngqo isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo kwi Dered Scott v. Sandford[FLT] [1] [1857], apho iJaji eyintloko uRoger Taney, nokuba ingumkhonzi waseAfrika okanye ukhululekile, ayinakuba ngabami ba-U.. Ngokumisela ubumi bobuzibulo, iGaba nelungelo elingu-Gqikelelo linika inkcazelo ezenzekelayo nobuhlanga. Ukususela oko bekuyimeko oluphakathi lokufuduselwa kwabantu, ingakumbi imeko yabantwana abazalelwe ekungazalwangabazali e-Cudiccation, kwaye ihlala ikho kwi-uni yomthetho wesizwe saseMelika.

Inkqubela KaClaus

I-Bactive Processour Claus iyalela naliphi na ityala elisuka ku- “nabani na wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho.” Ekuqaleni iqondwa njengesiqinisekiso seenkqubo ezifanelekileyo ``````norice''', inkundla engakhethiyo, inkundla echaza ityala'. Iphepha elichazayo (iNkundla ePhakamileyo) ukukhusela amalungelo angadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kuMgaqo-siseko. Ngemfundiso ye- “incorporation,” iNkusebenza kakhulu kweBhili leeNkuhlela zamalungelo ekwalawulweni, kuquka inkululeko yokuthetha, ukuphatha izixhobo, nokukhusela ekuhlolweni nokuxwelwa okungaqikelelwanga. Ingxelo yetyala iye yaba sisiseko samkelekelwe kumalungelo obuqu, njengaleyo eyaziwa [FL:[1] [F] [1] i-F1] kunye ne-Fognonte)) (if.

Ukukhusela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

Mhlawumbi esona lungiselelo lidumileyo, i-Unime Protection Claus iyalela ukuba akukho rhulumente “oya kubandakanya nabani na okwindawo yayo ephakamileyo ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho.” Ayikwaleli ukucalucalucalulo ``````'''''''. kodwa ifuna ukuba naluphi na ucalulo lunxulumene ngokufanelekileyo nenjongo karhulumente evumelekileyo. Xa ulwahlulo lubandakanya“ uhlobo olunespect" olunjengohlanga okanye uhlanga, okanye oluchaphazela imvelaphi e-[FLT:] okanye iinkundla zisebenzisa uphando olungqongqo, zinyanze ukuba umthetho usetyenziswe ngokungqongqo, unyanzelo oluthiweyo ukuze usebenze inzala karhulumente enyanzele. Le mithetho isebenzisa ezinye iimfanelo zobugrona esemthethweni yemfundo esemthethweni, i-R.[FLD, kunye ne-RG.[4] Imithetho ye-G.[5] I-G.

Uphawu Lwetyala LeNkundla Ephakamileyo Lusiphazamisa Esi Similo

Ulwimi olungekho ngqiqweni loMphetho weshumi elinesine luye lwanikwa intsingiselo ecacileyo ngothotho lwezigqibo ezibalulekileyo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) – Isiphelo Se-Secorvation

Isigqibo sesivumelwano Brown savakalisa ukuba ucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwaphula iSikhuseli sokulinganisa uClaus. Inkundla yayala imfundiso “engafaniyo kodwa elinganayo” evela ku Pnety v. Ferguson [1896] [iii-196], ibambe loo zakhiwo zemfundo zokwahlukana kobuhlanga azilingani ngokwemvelo. Le sigqibo saba sisiseko esisemthethweni sombutho wamalungelo abantu kwaye sakhokelela ekudelweni kwisakhiwo sasekuhlaleni soluntu.

[[UMTL: 0] Roe v. Isandi[[FTL:1] (1973) – Ubumfihlo ne Inkqubo ekwixesha elilindelekileyo

Inkundla yaqonda ukuba iNkqubo elindelekileyo kaClaus ukhusela ilungelo lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuphelisa ukukhulelwa, ukukubeka ngaphakathi kwelungelo elibanzi kwisiqu salo sobuqu. Eli tyala linyuse amashumi eminyaka eemfazwe zobupolitika kunye nezomthetho, ukuqukumbela kwisigqibo Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization , eyabhukuqa [[FLT:]]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – ukulingana komtshato

Kumthetho wama-5-4, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukuHlaziya kweMimiselo yeMibini kufuna iingxelo zemvume nokuqaphela imitshato efanayo. Isigqibo sasixhomekeke kwi-Unit Processol Claus (ukukhusela ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata) kunye ne-Uncility Protection Claus (ukukhetha okusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini). Obergefell[ wamela olona mpumelelo lukhulu lweLGBTQ+ .

Comment=Iindawo ezidityanisiweyo ze CD

Nangona ingekho ncam idibene nocalucalulo, i-CIIINKUP eliLinganisayo libonisa ukusetyenziswa kweNkundla kaClaus kwabanye abantu abangokwasemthethweni. INkundla yakholelwa ukuba ukukhuselwa koMphetho wokuqala wamadlamko, okuququzelelwe ngokuchasene namazwe ngoMmiselo weshumi elinesine, kuthintela urhulumente ekuthinteleni iinkcitho ezizimeleyo zezopolitiko zemibutho kunye namaqumrhu. Esi sigqibo siye saguqula umthetho wezemali.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Abemi

IsiHlanzo seshumi elinesine somthetho sikwayindawo esemthethweni phantse yonke imibutho emikhulu yamalungelo abantu kwimbali yaseMelika. Ngexesha lama-1950 kunye nama-1960, iNaACP’s Legal Defect Fund yasebenzisa i-Ukhuselo lwe-Elimilimiyo luka-Claus ekuhlaseleni i-Expaline profect Claus, imiqathango yokuvota, kunye nocalucalulo lokuhlala. Utshintsho lwanika amandla okukhupha umthetho wesigqendulo, njengoMthetho wamalungelo okhethekileyo ka-19649 kunye neSivumelwano samalungelo oMgaqo-mthetho wango ka-1988, apho iNgqungquthela phantsi kweCarcelo yagunya lamandla ayo. Ngoo1970 ne-1980, i-Rhovisiso i-ondo oluthelweyo, u-Rhovisiso oluthe phantsi kwe-odl-odvice, ukhuselwa phantsi kwendlela ye-odviko olufanelekileyo, u-ondo oluthelelwa phantsi kwe-luvoluvoluvoluvoluvoluvo

Iingxaki Neengxaki Zangaphambili

Nangona inamandla, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine alulokhatho. Ucalulo luyaqhubeka ngeendlela ezininzi, yaye iinkundla zisoloko zahlulwa ngendlela ekumele kucaciswe ngayo inguquko. Eminye yezona ngxaki zicinezelayo ziquka:

  • [[NTL:0] Imithetho ye-Id yeVotier kunye neMiqathango eLawulayo: Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi imithetho yomvoti ithintela ubuqhetseba, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi le mithetho ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto ingumthwalo omncinci, okhulileyo, nongakhutshelwanga kakhulu, enokuba nokwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus. Iinkundla zifikelele iziphumo eziphikisanayo ngokuxhomekeke kubungqina benjongo okanye isiphumo sediski.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isenzo sokuqinisekisa : Inkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ibambelele kwimigaqo-nkqubo yokulamkela ugqatso lohlanga kwimfundo ephezulu ixhomekeke kuphando olungqongqo. Izigqibo ze-Fair Adgistrations v. Harvard [2023], iNkundla ibekelmkelele ngokuphawulekayo ukusetyenziswa kohlanga kwiikholeji, ilawula ukuba iinkqubo ezinjalo zimele zibe nexesha elilinganiselwe kwaye zilungiseke kancinci. Esi sigqibo sivula ingxoxo nokuba i-"i-interfactal Protection Clate quee ifuna umbala okanye imigudu esebenzayo yokufumana iiyantlukwano.
  • Ukungena nokuzala ngokusemthethweni kwe-Grandism: Umninimzi u-Claus usisigxina kwinkqubo yangoku yokufuduka. Abanye abezobupolitika baye baphikisa ngelithi abantwana abazalelwe kwi-U.S. kubazali abangabhalwanga mabangazifumani ngokuzenzekelayo ubumi, indawo efuna ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko okanye ukucaciswa kwebinzana elithi “ulawulo lwalo.” Abaphengululi bemithetho bayavuma kakhulu ukuba ukutolikwa okunjalo kuyaphikisana nentsingiselo yokuqala yerejista yalo nangaphezulu kwenkulungwane yenkqubo yesithethe.
  • Umahluko woqoqosho kunye nokwahluka-hlukene kwezempilo: UKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus aluqinisekisi iziphumo ezilinganayo zezoqoqosho, kwaye iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zikholelwa ukuba ucalucalulo lwezoqoqosho luxhomekeke kuphela kwisiseko esiqikeleleyo. Oku kushiya ukungalingani okuninzi kwesixokelelwano (ngokufana nokungalingani kwemali yesikolo, ukufikelela kwempilo, kunye nengozi yemekobume (ngaphandle kokufikelela kokungafikeleleki kwentengiselwano ekubandakanyekileyo (umz., uhlanga) kubandakanyekile.
  • Ubulungisa bomthetho kunye noHluliso lweMisa : I-'Udweliso lwenkqubo luka-"U-"Udweliso-lwazi luka-Claus] lutolikwa ukucela iimvavanyo ezifanelekileyo, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi ukwahlukana kweentlanga ekubotshweni, ekugwetyweni, nasekucebiseni ingxubusho icebisa ingxaki engundoqo yokhuseleko olulinganayo. Ukupheliswa kwemithetho kuqhubekeka ukuba ukupheliswa kungathetha ubuhlanga nobuhlanga kwinkqubo yokulawula.

INkqubo Yokungahambelani: Ukuzisa iBhili yamaLungelo eUnited States

Enye ye 144th Amendmentation ingumthetho otshintsha kakhulu yimfundiso eququzelelwayo. Ngaphambi ko1868, iBhili yamaLungelo esetyenziswa kuphela kurhulumente wezwe, njengoko igcinwe ku . Barron v. Baltimore[ [1833]. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaqalisa ukudibanisa amalungelo ngamanye akhoyo ngamanye amaqela asetyenziswayo ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye19, kodwa ebaluleke kakhulu yenzeke ebudeni benkulungwane yama-20: inkululeko yokuthetha ([FLT:]] grive v. [2][FLT]][FFFFT]], 1925], ikhuselwa, ukupheliswa okungekho ngqiyo, ukukhuselwayokunene, ukhuseleko olungekho ngqiyokuneneyo.[4][5], ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwe-R.[3][3] kunye ne-Esvoluquast , ukhuseleko lokhuseleko lokhuseleko lokhuseleko lokhuseleko lwasekunene, olusezantsi, olusezantsi oluphezulu, oluphezulu, olusezantsi, oluphezulu luyedwa

Isiphelo

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMphetho-mva-mvandedwa lungaphezulu kakhulu kunento ekhoyo engokwembali. Luxwebhu oluphilayo, oluphefumlayo oluqhubeka lubumba ibutho labantu baseMerika kunye nomthetho. Ukusuka ekudalweni kwalo ngothuthu lwemfazwe yamakhaya ukuya ekusebenzeni kwalo kwezona mpikiswano zanamhlanje ezicalucalulana, ukulungisa kunika ubuchule bomzikelo olusemthethweni kwiminqweno yethu ehlangeneyo yokukhusela, inkululeko, nokulungisa. Umthetho ongundoqo ongundoqo okhoyo, iNgqolo-Ath , i-Sced Proced, kunye ne-Acience Devity (ukukhusela), ukulondoloza izixhobo ezingundoqo ekuthi ngazo abantu bacel ’ ucalucalucalucalucalu negunya lorhulumente. Kuye nabani nabani nabani na ofuna ukuqonda amalungelo emalini asemthethweni eMelika azimeleyo, ukukhuselwa kwemi, ukulawulwa kwemiqatha kwemiqatha ye-Genethi ye-Genethi, iNtemprectionation, iprojective, iprovity, iprovity, imigaqo, kunye ne

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya, uphando lweSiko loMgaqo-siseko weSizwe esidlulisela intlawulo , ingqokelela yeemeko ze-Gamplifice yeshumi elinesine , kunye [[FLT] ne-[FLT] i-LII] ebhalweyonke