Ukwazisa: Ilitye eliqinileyo lomgangatho womGaqo-siseko

I-Unimetic Protection Claus, equlethwe kwiCandelo 1 loMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine, ime njengenye yezona zibonelelo zinamandla nezikhuphisanayo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Yakhuthazwa ngo-1868 emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, umyalelo wayo olula . Ukungalingani-wiswa kwayo kuya kuthi “kubekho rhulumente oya kumntu onegunya elilinganayo ukukhusela okulinganayo kwemithetho”..[1]Isesona siseko somthetho osemthethweni wamalungelo angundoqo aphambili eUnited States. Yi-injini yesiseko ekhuthule i-calulo lohlanga, ihlabe ikhethelo lobufana nowesihla, kwaye yandisa ukulingana kwemitshato kufana nezibi ezimele ukusetyenziswa kwayo. Nangona kunjalo, i-galelo lwayo luye lwabangela ukuba kubekho ubundlo obukhulu beNkungamela-mthetho, kwaye luyaqhubeka ukusetyenziswa kweminxeba, ukusetyenziswa kweminyaniswa kwemiqatha lenkundla yezo.

Imvelaphi Engokwembali: Ukwakhiwa Kwazo Nesithembiso Somgangatho

I-Umedial Protection Claus ekwahluleni kwesizwe uvavanyo lokungalungisi kobuhlanga emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya. Ukupheliswa kobukhoboka kugqithe kwi-Harth Amendment (1865) kwashiya igqubu: owayengumGaqo-mva osemthethweni: wangaphambili umbutho wakwalathisela ngokukhawuleza “Imithetho Emnyama” eyawamisela ngokungqongqo amalungelo ama-Afrika asanda kukhululeka. Ekuphenduleni, i-Reconstan Congress Congression yagunyazisa iMpanement, eyagunyaziswa ngo-1868. I-mendements ephambili yabakhi abanjengoMphathi uJohn Bingham noSator uJacovieard Howard (eldey) yamisela uKhuselo olupheleleyo lwe-Clabel kuMthethweniwamanziswano lwe-Chumbini lwamast Act ka-18666 kunye nokunika isiqinisekiso sikarhulumente ngokuchasene nocalu-mthetho-o-Ponspoorder.

  • Iposi- Isiko lemfazwe: Igalelo lenzelwe ukudlula isigqibo esinezothe seNkundla ePhakamileyo .Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], eyayithi abantu abamnyama babengabo abemi.
  • Ukukhupha ikhowudi emnyama: Yayijolise ekuthinteleni amazwe angaphathi amakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa njengabemi beklasi yesibini.
  • Ukuqinisekisa ubumi besizwe: Igalelo lasebenza kwi tandrem kunye neSizwe uClausle ukuchaza ubumi bobuzibulo nokuqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo.
  • Isithembiso esiphosakeleyo: Ngaphandle kolwimi lwayo oluphakamileyo, eli binzana latshintshwa phantse inkulungwane kufundo olumxinwa lweNkundla Ephakamileyo kwiimeko ezifana ne Ityala leNdlu yeNdlu eHlulo ePhakamileyo [iiii-'1978] kunye [FLT]] Pnety v.[FLT:][FLT] [1866], exhase i-bala lohlanga phantsi kwemfundiso “elinganayodwa]

Eli binzana lahlala lingekho de kwaphakathi kwinkulungwane yama-20, xa umbutho wamalungelo abantu kunye nothotho lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yavuselela injongo yalo yantlandlolo.

Isiqendu soKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus: Umyalelo olula

Ulwimi oluchanileyo lweli binzana luthi: “Akukho zwe liza kwenza okanye linyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugonyelwa kwabemi base-United States; kwaye nawuphi na uMbuso awuyi kuhlutha nawuphi na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho; okanye aphike na umntu okwigunya lakhe okhusela imithetho efanayo." Ibinzana lokugqibela "‘ukungalingani kokhuseleko lwemithetho'." lisebenza kumazwe (nakongeza, oorhulumente basekuhlaleni), hayi kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ophakamileyo, nangona kamva iNkumgangatho oPhakamileyo“ udityaniswe urhulumente omnye ngokusetyenziswa koMbutho ka-Clawulo woMphetho [FU.[FLD]] [10]

Ngubani “Umthetheli”?

Eli binzana likhusela “nabani na,” hayi nje abemi. Olu lwimi lubanzi lutolikwa ukuquka izibonelelo, iinkampani, kunye, kwezinye iimeko, kwanabantwana abangakazalwa (nangona iNkundla ingabandisanga ngokupheleleyo abantu abangekazalwa). Ukufakwa kweenkampani kuye kwaphumela kwimo ephambili, njengoko amaqumrhu ezoshishino esebenzisa eli binzana ukucel ’ umngeni imithetho yokukhupha ityala.

Kuthetha Ntoni “Ukhuseleko Olukhulu”?

Igalelo alifuni ukuba yonke imithetho iphathe wonke umntu ngendlela efanayo; iyalwalela ucalucalulo olungokwasemthethweni okanye olungaqhelekanga. Umbuzo ongundoqo ngukuba ulwahlulo oludweliswe ngumthetho lugwetyelwe ngenjongo esemthethweni karhulumente. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivelise isiseko esineentlobo ezininzi sokuphendula loo mbuzo.

Iinkcazelo Eziyintloko: Iinkalo Zophawu Ezaphembelela UClaus

Imbali ye-Uncime Protection Claus ilibali lolwandiso kodwa olunzulu. Iimeko ezininzi ziye zayiphucula intsingiselo yazo. Ezi ziphendulo zilapha ziquka ezona ziphembeleli, zidityaniswe lucalulo abaluthethayo.

Ucalucalulo Lobuhlanga

  • [FLT] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Elona tyala lokhuseleko elidume kakhulu. Inkundla ngaxhatha linye yathi ubuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke baluchasa uqulu-mthetho, ukubhukuqa Pnetic v. Ferguson. IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warrents yabhala ukuba “amaziko emfundo ahlukeneyo.
  • [FLT]-'i-'v'. Virginia (1967): Imithetho karhulumente ekwalekwa umtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo. Inkundla yenza uphando olungqongqo kwaye ayifumani njongo esemthethweni yokuvalwa kolu hlobo lomthetho, isithi “kuyayiyo kubantu abakhululekileyo abamaziko abo asekelwe kwimfundiso yokulingana."
  • [FLT] Palmore v. Sidoti (19984): inkundla ayinakukhanyela ukuba imvume yokugcina umntwana kumama kuba nje waphinda watshata indoda yohlanga olwahlukileyo; ikhethe lobuhlanga lwamalungu esithathu awalo siseko esivunyelweyo somthetho.
  • Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistracts v. Harvard [2023] Ityala lohlanga elilelona likhulu. INkundla yabambelela kwinkqubo zokuvuma uhlanga eHarvard ne University of North Carolina zaphula iComputation Clause, ngokunempumelelo iphela kwisenzo sokwenza i-eyeye yolwazi oluphezulu.

Ucalucalulo

  • 'I-V. I-FLT' (1971]. Ityala lokuqala apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho ngezizathu zocalucalulo lobufana phantsi koKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. Yayenza ingasebenzi into eyabangela ukuba amadoda akhethe abafazi ngokwawo njengabalawuli beendawo.
  • [FLT][FLT] Craig v. Boren imisele imigangatho yohlolo oluphakathi lolwahlulo lwe-swnithi. INkundla yawisa phantsi umthetho we Oklahoma owavumela amabhinqa ukuba athenge i-orcohol-alhoog esezantsi eneminyaka eyi-18 ubudala kodwa efuna amadoda abe ngu-21.
  • [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996): INkundla yathi ukuvuma kwe Virginia Morivary Institute-kuphela kwakwaphula inkqubo yoKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. IJaji Ginsburg yabhala ukuba urhulumente kufuneka anikezele “ulungelelwaniso olunamandla” ukwenzela imilinganiselo esekelwe kwisigaba sesifana.
  • [[NTL:0] obergefell v. Hodges (2015) ngelixesha igqitywe kakhulu phantsi kweNkqubo ka Claus, iNkundla ikwaphumle ukubamba kwayo kwizizathu ezilinganayo zokhuseleko, iqinisekisa izibini ezifanayo-exx ilungelo lokutshata.

Ulawulo loMkhosi

  • [FLT] Plyler v. Doe (19982]] INkundla yathi ithetha ukuba ayinakuyikhanyela imfundo kawonke wonke kubantwana abasuka kwamanye amazwe abangabhalwanga. Isigqibo sasebenzisa uhlolo oluphakathi kwaye sagxininisa umonakalo kubantwana nakwinzala yoluntu olufundileyo.
  • [FLT]]Graham v. Richardson (1971: Imithetho karhulumente erhoxileyo ekhanyela inzuzo yentlalo-ntle kubemi abangokwasemthethweni. INkundla yathi icandelo lobuphambukeli lixhomekeke kuphando olungqongqo.

Ezinye Iindidi Ezikhuselweyo

  • City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center [85] Isicelo esifunyanisiweyo sohlolo lwesiseko sesiseko kodwa sabetha phantsi umthetho ocalucalula amakhaya eqela abantu abaneziphene zengqondo, ukufumana i-aimus kunokuba kufumane injongo esemthethweni.
  • [FLT]R . [[FLT] [1996]] yangasebenzi intengiso yomgaqo-siseko we Colorado eyathintela naluphi na ukhuseleko olusemthethweni olusekelwe kwindlela yesondo. Inkundla yasebenzisa isiseko esivakalayo kodwa yafumana umthetho ushukunyiselwe yi-amius.
  • [FLT] bergefell v. Hodges (2015): ukhuseleko olulinganayo kwizibini ezithethsileyo ezinxulumene nomtshato.

Imilinganiselo yempinda: Isakhelo esidityanisiweyo

The Supreme Court has developed three levels of scrutiny to determineukuba umthetho uyawuphula umthetho olinganayo noKhuselo lukaClaus. Umgangatho osetyenziswayo uxhomekeke kulwahlulo olusetyenziswa ngumthetho nakumalungelo awo achaphazelayo.

Uphando Olungqongqo

Isetyenziswa xa umthetho ucalucalulo olusekelwe “kulwahlulo” (uhlobo, imvelaphi yesizwe, ukuphambuka kwezinye iimeko) okanye umthwalo omalunga“ nokulunga kwasekunene” (ukuququzelela, ukuthatha uhambo, ukudibana kwelizwe, ukufikelela kwiinkundla). Ukusinda kuxanduva olungqongqo, urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba umthetho usebenza inkxalabo enyanzelekileyo yesizwe kwaye ulungiselelwe ngokufutshane ukufikelela olo mdla. [[FLT:] umgaqo obalulekileyo wokuvavanyazamisa phantse ngamaxesha onke. [FLT:] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo, [FLT], [FLT]], v [FFF:3], [FFFF], [FFF], [FFFT], [fGOG]

Uvavanyo oluphakathi

Isetyenziselwa ukukhetha ubufanasini kwaye, kwezinye iimeko, ukugweba (abantwana abatshatileyo). Urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba umthetho usebenza injongo ebalulekileyo karhulumente kwaye ukwahlulwa okunxulumene ngokunzulu nokufikelela loo njongo. Lo mgangatho awunyanzelisi kakhulu kunophendlo olungqongqo kodwa ungqongqo kakhulu kunesiseko esinengqondo. Imizekelo: Craig v. Boren, , Virginia, [[FLT:]], [[FLT:]] umzekelo. Doev[FLT]

Impinda Esisiseko

Umgangatho ongagqibekanga wazo zonke ezinye izahlulo ``age, isiphene, umthetho wezoqoqosho, amatyala amaninzi okubonisa ngokwesondo (de kube fell). Umthetho ucingelwa ukuba umgaqo-siseko, kwaye umcebisi makabonise ukuba ucalucalulo alunxulumenenga ngokufanelekileyo nomdlalo osemthethweni karhulumente. Oku kunxulumene kakhulu nenzala karhulumente; phantse yonke imithetho ekhoyo. Noko ke, iNkubeko iye ngamathuba athile yasebenzisa isiseko esiqikelelwayo ngo- “bit" ukubetha imithetho eqhutywa ngu-ams, njengaku i-Dow. Clecurn Living Center kunye [FLD]

Inkqubo yoHlelo olujikelezayo

Inkundla ikhe yabonisa amathandabuzo amatsha arhanelwayo. Umzekelo, obergefell, izigwebi ezininzi zicebisa ukuba imbonakalo yesondo ingafuna uhlolo oluphezulu, kodwa iNkundla ayizange yandise ngokucacileyo imeko yangaphandle kwendoda neyohlanga. Ixesha kunye nokukhubazeka kuhlala kusisombululo oluqikelelweyo, nangona iBhunga linikeze ukhuseleko lwemithetho yomthetho ukutyhubela i-ARCMT kuMthetho we-ARCMENT kunye nomthetho waseMelika onobugqit.

Iingxaki Neengxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo

Ngaphezu kweminyaka eli-150 emva kokuqhathwa, i-Umencime Protection Claus ihlala ikwisiko leemfazwe zezobupolitika nezomthetho zaseMerika. Emva koko kulandela ezona ngxoxo zicinezelayo zanamhlanje.

Amalungelo

Igalelo lisoloko licelw'ucelw'uluvotelwa ukucel'ulungela imithetho yokuvota echaphazela ngokungenakulinganiswa abavoti abambalwa. Shelby County v. Homer (2013), iNkundla yawisa phantsi ilungiselelo elingundoqo lamaLungelo, kodwa i-offrectoriter I-Id ye-Id, ukususwa kwemivoti, nokuncitshiswa kwemivota, nokuncitshiswa kwemiqathango ye-ontaka ekhoyo kuyaqhubeka kucelwniswe phantsi kwe-Monicial Clause. Isigqibo seNkubonelo ye-jojian siyaqhubeka sikhomba ukunikezelwa kwe-toliki ye-Orgen, kwaye iphumeza phambili kwiNkuhlela ePhakakhulu.

Isenzo Esiqinisekisayo

Isigqibo sa 2023 kwi Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistrals v. Harvard ngokunempumelelo igqibe ngokungenazimvo zohlanga kwimfundo ephezulu. INkundla yabambelela kwelokuba nakuphi na ukusetyenziswa kohlanga kufuneka kwanelise uhlalutyo olungqongqo, kwaye iinkqubo ze Harvard ne UNC aziphumelelanga ukuvavanya. Esi sigqibo sele sibangele igalelo lolwamkelo ngokuchasene nolwahlulo lwabucala lwabaqeshi bemi kwaye siqhube impikiswano yokuba ngaba uKhuselo lwe-Clavieste Claus luyalela ukuba nakusebenza ngoluvo lobuhlanga, kwanaxa kucetyiswa ukulungisa ucalucalulo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ukuba igalelo “luyimfashoni, lolwayo, lo gama abanye besithi ivumela ukuba imilinganiselo yokwahluka-mkhethe olungabonakaliyo i-luvo.

LGBTQ+ amalungelo

Ngeli xesha [[FLT: 0] ithe gqi , iNkundla iqinisekisa ukulingana komtshato, igalelo elilinganayo liyaqhubeka lisembindini kumadabi angaphezulu komjikelo we-transformder. Bostock v. Clayton County[[[FLT:]] [2020], iNkuhlalo echaza iSihlomelo VII] ukunqanda ucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo kunye nophawu lobufana emsebenzini, kodwa ukhuseleko olulinganayo lunganikela ukhuseleko olubanzi. Amanani amaninzi amisela imithetho yokuvala imidlalo yesikolo okanye ukuva inkathalo-ubufana nobufana-ubuncinane; le mithetho ijongenemingeni elinganayo, isebenzisa imingeni eyahlukileyo yovavanyo. Inkundla ephakamileyo ivumelana nokuva [Flkn] [brme]

Ukufuduka

Igalelo likhusela “nabani na,” oquka abaphambukeli abangabhalwanga. Plyler v. Doe, iNkundla yathintela iimeko ekukhanyeni imfundo kubantwana abangabhalwanga, kodwa eso sigqibo singaba semngciphekweni wokunikwa igunya elilawulayo. UMongameli Trump's ukuvalwa kohambo (ukukubhaliswe [[FLT: 2]]Trump v. Hawaii, 2018]) wasinda ekuphengululeni ngokufanelekileyo, kodwa imigaqo yexesha elizayo ejoliswe ekusohlwayeni izixeko ezingcwele okanye ekubekeni ubugqwebe bobugqwena bobunobo ijongeneno kuphelo olugqithisileyo. Ukuba ngaba intengo ifuna ukuphatha abahlali abahlala behleli abasebenzayo ngokusemthethweni.

Ukufumaneka konyango

Ulwandiso lwe-Medicaid noMthetho we-Afford Yamandla eSihlalo kunye nokugqunywa kweemeko zangaphambili kuye kwacelwwa ngezizathu ezilinganayo zokhuseleko, nangona inkoliso ingaphumeleli. Kutshanje, ukwahlukana kwamanani okufa kukamama kukhokelela ekumangalelweni kwemithetho yokuba iinkqubo zezonyango zesizwe nezonyango zasekuhlaleni zaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo ngokusilela ukuphendula ucalulo lwenkqubo yobuhlanga. Iinkundla zikwadityaniswa nokuba ukwala amanye amazwe uMedidid phantsi kwe-A kunguhlobo locaciso ngokuchasene nabahlali bemi abaphantsi, nangona iNkundla isoloko ikholelwa ukuba imigaqo yezo zobutyebi iphantsi kolwandoqolo olufanelekileyo.

Isiphelo: Isiqinisekiso Esiphilayo

I-Acten Protection Claus ayingomthetho othe ngqo kodwa sisiqinisekiso esiphilayo esinokuthi intsingiselo yawo ivele ngokuphawulekayo ukususela ngowe-1868. Yintoni eyaqala njengesithembiso kumabhinqa asandul' ukukhululwa, abaphambukeli, abantwana abangatshatanga, abantu abaneziphene, kunye ne-LGBTQ. Imo edityanisiweyo yokuhlola u-"liference", phakathi, kwaye isiseko esikhoyo esingunobuchule "```````ilungisa isiseko esithambileyo,'', kodwa ukusetyenziswa kweNkuhlalo kusoloko kubonakalisa imo yesithethe nezobupolitika. Ikamva le LGBTQ liza kuphendulwa ngendlela iNkukhosi Ephakamileyo ephendula ngayo imibuzo: Ngaba ngumbala ofihlakeleyo okanye ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo? Ingaba ifuna ukuba urhulumente aphinde aphinde achaze iziphumo okanye amaqela amanani afanayo?

Njengoko imibutho emitsha yentlalo ivela kwaye ukungalingani okudala kuqhubeka, i-Acticole Protection Claus iza kuhlala ikwindawo yedabi ekwakukho imfazwe esemthethweni apho amaMelika aphikisana khona nentsingiselo yokulingana. Kubafundi, abafundisi-mfundo, nabemi, beyiqonda imbali yayo, indlela yayo yemfundiso, kunye nezicelo zayo zangoku zibalulekile ekuthabatheni inxaxheba kwezo mpikiswano. Amagama alula ale ngxelo. "ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo kwemithetho" kuya kuhlala kuyinto engqongqo kwaye ithanda ukukhuphisana na namhlanje njengokuba kwakunjalo ngo-1868.

[[FLT:] ukuqhubekeka kokufunda, jonga i [[FLT: 1] Intengiso ekhankanyiweyo , i iprojekthi ye-[[FLT:] ye-Oyez] kwimpikiswano eziPhakamileyo zeNkundla yomlomo, kunye nomthetho wemiba ekwingcamango elinganayo. Iimeko ezingundoqo: [[FLT:] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (Julit), [[FLT:]] [[FLT]][12]][FLT].[2][FFFFF:]