Imvelaphi Yembali YoMthetho Wesine Ohlaziyiweyo

Uhlaziyo lwesine aluzange luphumele kwimfumba. Imvelaphi yalo ikwisilwano sobuthane neBritane. Kwiminyaka ekhokelela kwiNguqu yaseMerika, amagunya aseBritane asebenzisa [[FLT: 0]] imvume ezikhoyo kunye [[FLT]] ne-[FLT]writ yoncedo [ ukuqhuba uphando olucacileyo lwamakhaya, amashishini, kunye neenqanawa ngaphandle kwesizathu esikhethekileyo. Aba bavumi bavumela amagosa amasiko ukuba akhangele naphi na indawo erhwetywe kuyo nangaso nangaso nasiphi na ixesha, ngaphandle kwesaziso kwaye kungekho mfuneko yokubiza igama lendawo okanye izinto ezifunwayo. Abaququququli beenqanawa balujonge olu qheliselo njengohlaselo oluthe ngqo kwinkululeko nempahla yobuqu.

Elinye icala lesiqu setyala yayiyi 1761 igalelo leSibelo se-Assipe eMassachusetts, apho igqwetha eliselula uJames Otis lathi imiyalelo enjalo “yesona sixhobo sibi kakhulu solawulo olunyanzelisayo, esona sitshabalalisayo senkululeko yamaNgesi.” Ingxoxo yakhe yanyula amathanga yaza yatyala imbewu yokwamkelelwa kweyesine uMphetho-Mphetho-mda. Ngexesha iBhili yamaLungelo yayantswana yabelwa ngo1789, iiFramens zazizimisele ukunqanda urhulumente omtsha ukuba angaphindi ukuxhatshazwa oku. Banyaza ukuba na ukuphendla okanye ukuphaza okuqhatha kumele kuvunywe ngokungqalileyo, okuvunywa ngumgwetyiso, okuvunywa ngumgwebi we-calal, nomda.

Imvelaphi enzulu kumava obukolone neemvume jikelele, bona iSiko loMgaqo-siseko weSizwe [[FLT: 1]].

Ulwimi Lomgaqo - siseko Wesine

Ibhalwe ngokungqalileyo kodwa inamandla:

“ Ilungelo labantu lokunqabiseka kubantu babo, kwizindlu, kumaphepha, nakwiziphumo, nxamnye nokuphanda nokuxhuzula okungaqiqiyo, aliyi kwaphulwa, yaye akukho mithetho iya kukhutshwa, kodwa ngenxa enokwenzeka, ixhaswe okanye ivunywa nguOath, kwaye ichaza ngakumbi indawo eza kuphendwa, nabantu okanye izinto ezimele ziphathwe.”

Eli binzana linye limisa ukhuseleko olungundoqo lwezibini. Okokuqala, liqinisekisa ilungelo eliqhelekileyo lokukhululeka kwi ngaphaya kwengqondo ukukhangela nokuxhuzula — kodwa phawula ukuba alikwaleli ukukhangela, kuphela ezo zingekho ngqiqweni. Okwesibini, limisela imfuno ezingqongqo zokwamkelwa kwesiqinisekiso: kufuneka zisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo, zixhaswe yindlela eqinisekisiweyo, kwaye kufuneka zichaze ngokungqalileyo indawo ezakukhangelwa kuyo nabantu okanye izinto ezizakuthi zibanjiswe.

Iimfundiso zoMququzelelo neMigangatho eHlakulelayo

Ukulindela Ukuba Ndibe Sodwa

Kwimbali enkulu yaseMerika, iinkundla zigqibe ukuba uphando lwenzekile na ngokukhangela kwityala elibonakalayo — nokuba urhulumente wangena ngokoqobo kwindawo yangasese. Oku kwatshintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yo1967 Katz v. United States. [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] [iiiikhazikzi [[FLT]] [iindawo], iNkuNkundla yagqiba ukuba iSine sikhusela abantu, hayi iindawo. Isigqibo samisela ukulindela okusengqiqweni kwendawo yobuqu [: uvavanyo: luyenzeka xa umntu (1) umntu ebonise ukulindela okusemgaqweqweni, kunye nolundelo olulungeleyo olulungele ukuqwalalwlulungele ukuqondwa ngabantu.

Olu vavanyo luye lwaba luvavanyo lohlaziyo lwangoku loMphetho-nkqubo wesine. Umzekelo, umntu osebenzisa igumbi lomnxeba ulindele ukuba incoko yabo ingabi nakuphulaphuli ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso. Ngokuchasene noko umntu aziyo ukukubhenca ebantwini — njengelizwi lelizwi labo kwintsimi evulekileyo — alikhuselekanga. Katz [ isiseko sendlela yolwazi siyaqhubeka ukuvela, ingakumbi njengokuba ubuchule obutsha belizwi lithandabuza iingcamango ezingeyo zobuqu.

Unobangela Ofanelekileyo

[[NTLT: 0] Unobangela oqinisekileyo [ ngumgangatho womgaqo-siseko omele uhlangatyezwane ngaphambi kokuba isiqinisekiso sinikezelwe. Kuthetha ukuba umntu osengqiqweni, ngokusekelwe kwimo epheleleyo, angakholelwa ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho luye lwenziwa okanye ubungqina bolwaphulo-mthetho buzakufunyanwa kwindawo ethile. Isizathu esinokwenzeka sifuna okungaphezulu kunomngxengxengxezo okanye nje, kodwa asifuni kuqiniseki. Yingcamango esebenzayo, engeyoyakho ikho itekno ephuma kwizibakala neemeko ezinikelwe kumagqwetha.

Ngokwesiko, amapolisa asoloko ebonakalisa unobangela onokwenzeka ngokuchaza indlela yokuziphatha, iincam zokwazisa, ubungqina obubonakalayo, okanye ukujongwa. Indima yemaji kukuzenzela umgwebo ozimeleyo wokuba izibakala ezinikezelweyo zihlangane nomda olindelekileyo. Olu vavanyo lwetyala lubalulekile ukunqanda inkqubo yesiqinisekiso ekubeni sitempu yerabha.

Imfuneko Engummangaliso Nezinto Ezahlukileyo Kuzo

ISichibiyelo sesine sikhethelwe imvume. Noko ke, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba ukufuna imvume kuzo zonke iimeko kungaphazamisa ukugcinwa komthetho, kwezinye iimeko, kubeke ukhuseleko loluntu engozini. Ngenxa yoko, iNkundla iye yayila iindidi eziliqela ezingafaniyo ezimiselwe kakuhle. Ezi zimkhethe azikho ngaphaya kwendlela yokuzikhusela; zibekwe kumgaqo ofanayo wobusengqiqweni onika amandla okulungisa konke.

Ezi zizathu ziquka:

  • Imvume:[ [Ukuba umntu uyavuma ngokuzithandela kuphendlo, akukho siqinisekiso esifunekayo. Noko ke, imvume kufuneka inikwe ngokukhululekileyo, hayi inyanzelo, kwaye umlinganiselo wokukhangela ulinganiselwe koko umntu akwamkele.
  • Imboniselo Ecacileyo: [Ukuba igosa likhona ngokusemthethweni kwindawo kwaye libona isithintelo okanye ubungqina ekuboneni okucacileyo, loo nto ingabanjwa ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso. Le nto mayibonakale ngokukhawuleza njengetyala.
  • Ukukhangela Ithuba lokubanjwa: Xa kubanjwa ngokusemthethweni, igosa lingaphendla ubanjwa kunye nendawo ekulawulo lwalo olukhawulezileyo ukukhusela ukhuseleko lwabaphathi-mikhosi nokukhusela utshaba lobungqina. Oku kunxaxhi akunwebi kwikhaya liphela okanye kwisithuthi ngaphandle kobulungisa obongezelelekileyo.
  • Iimeko eziqikelelwayo: Kwimeko zongxamiseko — njengokusukela ngokushushu ukurhanela, ukutshatyalaliswa okusemnyango kobungqina, okanye umngcipheko wengozi kwabanye — amagosa angangena aze afune ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso. Uxanduva lukurhulumente ukungqina ukuba iimeko zisithethelela ngokwenene isenzo esingenasizathu.
  • [[UMTL:0] Inqwelo-moya Ezenzekelayo Enxaxhileyo: Kuba izithuthi zihamba-hamba kwaye zingasuswa phambi kokuba isiqinisekiso sifumaneke, abaphathi-majoni abanokuba nesizathu esilindelekileyo sokukholelwa ukuba imoto inobungqina bolwaphulo-mthetho bangakhangela inqwelo-mafutha ngaphandle kwemvume. Oku kukhetha kugquma isithuthi sonke, kuquka nezikhongozeli ezivaliweyo ezifunyenwe ngaphakathi.
  • Yima kunye ne Frisk (Ukumisa koMkhosi): Phantsi [[FT:2] Terry v. Ohio (1968), igosa lingamisa umntu osekelwe ekukrokreleni okusengqiqweni komsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye, ukuba igosa likholelwa ukuba umntu uxhotyiwe kwaye uyingozi, liqhuba ipat-defi yezixhobo. Oku kuphengululo, kodwa kungaphantsi koluphendlo olupheleleyo lokukhangela ubanjwa.

Kwi-opera ye mvume ebanzi, Iqumrhu lolwazi lomthetho linika inkcazo enenkcukacha.

Izigqibo Ezibalaseleyo ZeNkundla

Amatyala amaninzi eNkundla Ephakamileyo aye aphucula umthetho weSine SoMthetho ohlaziyiweyo. Ngasezantsi athe chatha, agxininisa kwindlela alomeleza ngayo ulwazi lwangoku.

Weeks v. United States (1914)

Phambi [[FLT: 0] , kwakungekho nyango lusebenzayo lokwaphulwa komthetho wesine so Amezo-Mpanzi. Ukuba amapolisa aqhuba ukuphendla okungekho mthethweni, ubungqina busenokusetyenziswa enkundleni. ] Uweks watshintsha ukuba ngokudala [[FLT:] i-exclubrary [, nto leyo ethintela ukumangalelwa ekusebenziseni ubungqina obufunyenweyo ekuphunyezweni koMhlaziso-mda wesine. Ekuqaleni, lo mthetho wasetyenziswa kwiinkundla zomthetho zorhulumente, kodwa kamva wanziswa kwiinkundla zelizwe [[FLT:]]. v[FLT]

[[UMTL:0]Mapp v. Ohio (1961)[[FL:1]

, iNkundla yathi umthetho wokuzikhulula usebenza kwiinkundla zikarhulumente nge-Celas Dometers of the Identimente. Esi sigqibo satshintshwa kakhulu ngurhulumente kunye nomthetho wasekuhlaleni, sinyanzelisa amapolisa ukuba athobele imigangatho yemithetho-siseko karhulumente okanye aphulukane nobungqina obuchanile. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba umthetho wokuzikhulula uvumela abamangalelwa abanetyala ukuba bakhululeke, kodwa abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi ngumthetho oyimfuneko wokuthintela ihambo engafanelekanga yamapolisa.

[[UMTHETHO: 0] Terry v. Ohio (1968)

Ityala “yema kunye ne-frak” lafunyaniswa ukuba uMphetho-mvakalo wesine awufuni sizathu esilindelekileyo sokudibana ngamapolisa ngamanye amazwe. Endaweni yoko, umgangatho osezantsi — ukukrokrela okusengqiqweni — kwanele ukumisa uphando olufutshane kunye nokusikelwa phantsi okusikelwe umda kwezixhobo. I-Terry ukhuseleko lwabaphathi-majoni kunye namalungelo abantu ngabanye kwaye uhlala ungumqobo oshushu, ingakumbi malunga nokuncitshiswa kwemilo yezizwe.

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (85)

Eli tyala libhekise kumalungelo eSine soHlaziyo sabafundi besikolo sikawonke-wonke. INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba amagosa ezikolo akafuni mvume okanye isizathu esilindelekileyo sokuphengulula umfundi; kunoko, kufuneka arhane [[FLT: 0]] kuphela ngokusengqiqweni ukukrokra [ ukuba ukuphengulula kuya kufumana ubungqina bokwaphulwa komthetho wesikolo. Uphando lumele lukwamkeleke. Lo mgangatho usezantsi uyawuqonda umdla wesikolo ekulondolozeni ucwangco kodwa usafuneka ukhusele abafundi ekufuneni izicelo zemfundo ezingokwasemthethweni.

[[UMTL:0] RILEy v. Calinian (2014

Kwisigqibo esiyelelanisiweyo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi amapolisa kufuneka afumane isiqinisekiso phambi kokuba aphengulule iziphumo zeselfowuni ebanjwayo ngexesha lokubanjwa. Inkundla yaqonda ukuba iicell phone zale mihla zinenkcukacha ezininzi zabucala — ii-imeyili, iifoto, uqhagamshelwano, ugcino-lwazi lwendawo — ngaphezu koko ukuphengululwa komntu kusenokutyhilwa. Riley ingumqondiso wendlela yokufihla imbali yoluvo lwamanani kwaye igxininisa imfuneko yokuzinzisombululo lwesine ukuze kufunyanwe ukutshintsha kwezobugcisa.

[[UMTL:0] Amaqonga okugcina umqadi v. United States (208)

Kutshanje, Inkundla igqibe kwelokuba ingqokelela karhulumente yolwazi lwemeko-seli yembali (CSLI) esuka kwisithuthi seselfowuni somntu singuphendlo oluphantsi koMphetho-wesine. INkundla ibambe ukuba abantu banolindelo olufanelekileyo lwemfihlo kwingxelo yemibutho yabo yomzimba njengoko ifunyaniswe yifowuni yabo. Le sigqibo salinganisela amandla karhulumente okufumana iinyanga zogcino-lwazi lwendawo ngaphandle kogunyaziso olusekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo. Imela inyathelo elikhulu ekusebenziseni imigaqo yesiHlanu soLawulo kunyaka-manani.

Kwimeko ezineenkcukacha, tyelela Oyez, iprojekthi yomthetho yamahala kwi Cornell’s Information Information esemthethweni Institute.

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesine Ezikolweni: Amalungelo Nemida

Abafundi abawafaki amalungelo abo oMphengululo wesine kwisango lesikolo, kodwa loo malungelo alungiswa yimeko-bume engaqhelekanga yezikolo zikawonke-wonke. Njengoko iNew Jersey v.T.L.O. isekwa, abalawuli besikolo bangaphengulula abafundi abasekelwe ekukrokreleni okusengqiqweni, hayi kungenxa yesizathu esilindelekileyo. Noko ke, ukuphengulula kufuneka kuthethelelwe ekuqaleni kwayo kwaye kulungelelene. Umzekelo, ukuphengululwa kwe-iPhone elahlekileyo kungathethelelwa ukuba umfundi uyayibona ifihlekile, kodwa ukukhangela okungumcukuthukuthetho okusekelwe kwincam engacacanga kakuhle kungangabikho ngqinelanga.

Ukuvavanywa Kweziyobisi Nokhuseleko Lwesikolo

iBoard of Education v. Earls (2002), iNkundla yaxhasa uvavanyo lweziyobisi olungacwangciswanga lwabafundi abathabatha inxaxheba kwimisebenzi yasemva kwesikolo, icaphula umdla wesikolo ekunqandeni ukusebenzisa iziyobisi. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zikwandise le ngcamango kolunye uphendlo olungakrokrelekiyo, olufana nokuxilonga nokukhangela kwentsimbi, ukuba nje abangeni kakhulu. Abafundi bafanele baqaphele ukuba ngoxa benamalungelo obuqu, abaphathi besikolo banomgangatho obanzi wokulondoloza ukhuseleko.

Uphando lwamanani lwezixhobo zabafundi

Unyuko lwe-laptop kunye nee-cell phone ezikolweni lubangele imibuzo emitsha. Iinkundla zisebenzise i-[FL:0]T.L.O. isiseko sokuphengulula iifowuni zabafundi kunye neenkqubo zesikolo ezifakelweyo, kodwa ngemida ethile. Uvumelwano olukhulayo luthi amagosa esikolo afune isixhobo kuphela ukuba anesizathu esingqalileyo sokukholelwa ukuba siqulethe ubungqina bokwaphula umthetho, kwaye ukukhangela kumele kuphelele kugcino-data olufanelekileyo. Abafundi kufuneka bafundiswe ngamalungelo abo nokubaluleka kokukhusela nokukhowuda igama eliyimfihlo.

Iingxaki Zale Mihla: Ubugcisa, Izinto Ezininzi Nezingasese

UHlomelo lwesine lujongene nocelomngeni olungazange lubonwe kwinkulungwane yama-21. Iinkqubo zolawulo lukarhulumente, ezifana nezityhilwe nguEdward Snowden, zibandakanya ukuqokelelwa kobuninzi bee-metadata, iirekhodi zomnxeba, kunye nothungelwano lwe-Intanethi. Iinkundla ziye zazama ukusebenzisa imigaqo yenkulungwane ye-18 kubugcisa obufana ne-drones, i-GPS, iziphawuli zobuso, kunye ne-AIP-aciece project.

iUnited States v. Jones (202), iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi ukudibanisa umthumeli weGPS kwimoto nokuhlola intshukumo zayo kangangeeveki kwakubumba uphando phantsi koMphetho-Mdathiso-mvandedwa wesine. Ingcinga yeNkundla yayixhomekeke kwityala lomzimba — ukuncamathelwa kwesixhobo — kodwa iijaji ezintlanu zasayina uluvo oludityanisiweyo oluthi ukuqwalasela ixesha elide kwanokuba ngaphandle kwetyala kungangqubana nosukelo olusengqiqweni lwemfihlo-mfihlo. Le miqondiso yokuba iNkuqululo iyakuqonda ukuhlaziselwa kwemfundiso yesine.

Enye inkupho ephumayo yimfundiso yenxenye yesithathu. Ngokwesiko, iNkundla ikholelwa ukuba ulwazi lwabelwe kumaqela amathathu ngokuzithandela — njengeerekhodi zebhanki okanye iinombolo zomnxeba ezicofiweyo — alukhuselekanga. Noko ke, i-Calter ibekelwe umda loo mfundiso ye-data ye-cell-s, kwaye amatyala azayo angayiphelisa. Umthetho ofana nezicelo zolungiso lwezobucala [[FLT: 4,] ACLU] ifuna ukucela iimvume zokuhlola iintlobo ezininzi zovavanyo.

Kwimiba yesine yoMgaqo-nkqubo wonyaka wesiXhobo, i-Electronic Frontinent Foundation inika ubuncwane obuninzi [[FLT: 0] obufunyanisiweyo.

Ucelomngeni Lwabafundi Nabafundisi

Ukuqonda uHlomelo lwesine asiyonkqubo nje yemfundo, ixhobisa abafundi ukuba baqonde baze basebenzise amalungelo abo, yaye inceda abafundisi-mfundo ukuba bafunde izinto ezibonisa ukhuseleko nezobumfihlo. Izikolo zinokubandakanya imfundo yesi-Cwene Solungeno kwizifundo zezezentlalo-ntle, zembali kwanakwezobugcisa.

Ubuchule Bokufundisa Obusebenzisekayo

  • [[FLT: 0] Indlela yokwalathisa: Abafundi bafunde kwaye baxubushe impikiswano yemboniselo yetyala eliPhakamileyo. Umzekelo, thelekisa indlela yokuqiqa T.L.O. kunye [[FLT:] [FLT]] [[FLT][FLT][FLT:] ukuvavanya indlela uphando lolwelo lwendlela lwendlela yezobugcisa olutshintsha ngayo iimfuno zemfihlo.
  • [[NT.0] IQuery Scenaries: Abafundi abakhoyo beneemeko ezisengqiqweni zokufuna — ipolisa elingumphumi-mkhosi limisa imoto, inqununu ekhangela isikhwapheni sengxowa yokukhangela ingxowa yomthwalo — lize licele ukuba liphikisane nokuba ukukhangela kungumGaqo-siseko kusini na phantsi komthetho wangoku.
  • [[NTL: 0] Iimpikiswano zeNkundla ePhakamileyo: Yabela iindima (impinda, iphicotho, iJaji) kwaye iqhuba ukuva okuhlekisayo kwimeko emfihlelo okanye yokwenene. Oku kukhulisa iingcinga ezigxekayo kunye nobuchule bokuthetha esidlangalaleni.
  • Uhlalutyo lwezehlo zangoku: Thelekisa amabali eendaba malunga nokuhlola, ukusetyenziswa komphunga, okanye iikhamera zequmrhu lamapolisa. Khuthaza abafundi ukuba bahlolisise indlela imigaqo yokuLandliswa kwesine esebenza ngayo kwiingxoxo zale mihla.
  • [[FLT: 0] Abathethi Abakhululi abaphezulu: Mema igqwetha lasekuhlaleni, ijaji, okanye inkululeko yasekuhlaleni abameli bothetha ngezicelo zokwenene zehlabathi zokukhangela kunye nomthetho wokuthamba.

Ukunika Abafundi Amandla

Abafundi bafanele bazi ukuba banelungelo lokuhlala bethule nokungavumi ukuphengululwa, kwanakwindawo yesikolo (nakuba amagosa ezikolo asenokuqhubeka nophando olusekelwe ekukrokreleni okusengqiqweni). Bafanele baqonde ukuba uLawulo lwesine lukhusela ekuphandweni okungekho ngqiqweni ngurhulumente, kungekhona ngabantu ngabanye. Ukufundisa le mbono kunceda abafundi ukuba balungelelane nomthetho kunye namagunya ezikolo.

Isiphelo

ISihlaziyo sesine singumkhuseli obalulekileyo ekungeneleni koorhulumente ngokusisigxina. Imigaqo yaso esisiseko — esenokuba ingunobangela, imiyalelo, nolwazelelelo — iyaqhubeka ikhokela ulawulo lwamagunya aseMerika, kwananjengoko ubugcisa obutsha bulucel ’ umngeni umsebenzi wabo. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda iSihlaziyo sesine kubalulekile ukuze sibandakanye kwimbali yayo, iimfundiso ezisisiseko, nendaleko yanamhlanje, sinokuluxabisa ngakumbi ukulungelelana okucekethezelekileyo phakathi kwenkululeko nokhuseleko abaFramers ababefuna ukukukhusela kuko.

Ekugqibeleni, uMmiselo wesine asingoxwebhu oludala; luxwebhu oluphilayo olufuna ukuba kuhlaziywe ngalo ngokuqhubekayo ngenxa yeemeko ezitshintshayo. Njengabemi, sonke sinembopheleleko yokuqinisekisa ukuba ilungelo lokunqabiseka kubantu bethu, kwizindlu zethu, kumaphepha nakwiziphumo zalo lihlala linentsingiselo kuzo zonke izizukulwana.