Yintoni Umanyano?

Umanyano luyinkqubo yolawulo esasaza amandla phakathi kwegunya elisembindini lesizwe kunye neyunithi zezobupolitika eziziziko `njengeemeko, amaphondo, okanye iinkanunu. EUnited States, esi sakhiwo sidala amanqanaba amabini orhulumente aphezulu asebenza ngexesha elinye kummandla omnye nabantu. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo yomanyano apho urhulumente osembindini unegunya elipheleleyo, urhulumente uqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente bagcine inkululeko epheleleyo kwimimandla ethile echaziweyo.

Le ngcamango isekelwe kumgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo obala ngokucacileyo amandla karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ngoxa egcina onke amanye amagunya kumazwe. Olu manyano lomgaqo-siseko alumi ngamaxesha onke; luye lwavela ngokulungisa, ngemithetho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, nangoqheliselo lwezopolitiko. Izazinzulu zezobupolitika zidla ngokuchaza iimodeli ezimbini ezikhuphisanayo zolawulo lorhulumente:

  • IFederalism e-Layer Cake Federalism):[ ijonga oorhulumente borhulumente borhulumente njengolwahlulo, abahlukeneyo abangqukuva abanezikhundla ezicacisiweyo. Le modeli yalawula inkulungwane ye-19 kunye nasekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20.
  • I-Federation component (Iyantlukwano Engagungqiyo):[ igxininisa iimbopheleleko ezihamba kunye kunye nentsebenziswano yesebe loburhulumente. Le modeli yafumana udumo ngexesha leDaba etsha kwaye iyaqhubeka ibumba ulawulo lwale mihla.

Ubufane bukwaneempawu phakathi kolwalamano lwaseburhulumenteni ."grants-in-aid, izigunyaziso, kunye nokukhululwa) ngokunjalo urhulumente wesizwe uphembelela inkqubo karhulumente. Ukuqonda ezi mpembelelo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela idemokhrasi yaseMerika esebenza ngayo.

Imbali Ephucukileyo Yomanyano Lwamatyala EUnited States

Ukusuka ekuququzelelweni ukuya kumGaqo-siseko

Uhlobo lwe-propatinsitialism yesizwe saseMelika lubonakala kwiThekits of Confederation (1781), eyadala iKhonkla ebuthathaka ephakathi kwaye yabeka phantse lonke igunya kumazwe. Eli lungiselelo langqineka lingasebenzi(IChonarent) ayinakukwazi ukulawula ezorhwebo, iirhafu, okanye ukunyanzelisa imithetho ngokuphumelelayo. Ukungavisisani kwezoqoqosho, ukunqongophala kwezorhwebo, kunye nokuVukela kukaShays kwabhenca iziphene.

INdibano yezomGaqo-siseko yowe-1787 yavelisa iplani eyahlukileyo ngokuphawulekayo. UmGaqo-siseko wanika urhulumente icandelo I, iCandelo 8) kunye nebinzana eliphakamileyo (Artle VI) ukwenza umthetho ophakamileyo wesizwe ube ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Kodwa uMphengululo weshumi elinesithoba, wongezwe ngowe-1791, obekwe ngokucacileyo kumagunya angamiselwanga kumaphondo okanye kubantu. Olu lawulo lubini lwaba ligunya legunya lezwe laseMerika.

IRiphabliki Yamandulo Nengxaki Yokungadibanisi

Amashumi okuqala eminyaka e-riphabliki avavanya imida yegunya likarhulumente. IAlien neSedition Acts (1798) yabangela iSigqibo seKentucky ne-Virginia, esathi singaphelisa imithetho engekho mgaqweni. Nangona ukubhangiswa kwemithetho yephondo kungaze kwamkeleke ngokusemthethweni, ingxoxo yaxela kwangaphambili iingxabano zexesha elizayo. INullitification Crisis yowe-1832-1833, eyabangelwa kukuchaswa korhulumente waseMzantsi Carolina, yaphela ngokulalanisa kodwa yaqinisekiswa ngobukhulu borhulumente ngoMongameli Andrew Jackson ngesisongelo somkhosi womkhosi.

Imfazwe Yamakhaya NeziHlanziso Zokuhlaziywa

Imfazwe yamakhaya (1861-1865) ngokusisiseko yaguqula umlinganiselo wesizwe. Uloyiso lwe-Union lwaseka ukuba amagunya akakwazi ukuphelisa imigaqo yesizwe kwaye urhulumente wesizwe akanakunyanzelisa imigaqo yesizwe. Ulungiso-nkqubo lokuququzelela (ulawulo lobukhoboka), ishumi elinesine (ukhuseleko olulinganayo, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nobumi), kunye neshumi elinesihlanu (amalungelo ahlukeneyo) kwaye kwathiwanyanzelela imiqathango emitsha kurhulumente kunye negunya eliseluntwini elingaphezulu kumalungelo abantu.

ISebe Elitsha Nomanyano Lomanyano

Ngexesha loKuwohloka Okukhulu Komnotho, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt yeenkqubo zeNew Deal zandisa ngokuphawulekayo indima karhulumente karhulumente kwimigaqo yezoqoqosho nentlalo-ntle yabantu. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqala yawisa imithetho emininzi ye-New Defere kodwa ekugqibeleni yatshintsha, ixhasa intsingiselo ebanzi yeChwethengiso uClaus, ukuhlawulwa nokusetyenziswa kwemali. Eli xesha likhuthaza uburhulumente obusebenzisanayo, apho urhulumente walungiselela khona ukunikezela kunye nezihlongozelo zokuba amaziko asebenzele iinkqubo zesizwe.

Indaleko NeReagan Era

Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20 kwaqhambuka ukuphithana kwegunya elisembindini. UMongameli Ronald Reagan wakhuthaza “uBukhosi obutsha,” ukukhuthaza ukubuyela kwegunya kumazwe ngemiqathango kunye nokuthintelwa. UMthetho wobuqu weCantery and Work Procement Reconciliation (utshintsho oluphakathi) wanika iimeko ezibhetyebhetyebhetye ekunikezeleni iinkqubo zentlalo-ntlalo. Lo mkhwa wokuphembelela uyaqhubeka uphembelela iingxoxo ngemfundo, ukuchanabeka kwezempilo, kunye nenkqubo yemekobume.

Ukwahlulwa-hlulwa komGaqo-siseko kwamandla

UmGaqo-siseko waseUnited States usasaza igunya phakathi korhulumente worhulumente, amarhulumente, nabantu kwiindidi ezintathu:

  • Amandla adweliswe ngokuphandle: adweliswe kwinqaku I, Icandelo 8, ezi ziquka amandla engqekembe yemali, ukubhengeza imfazwe, ukulawula intlabathi kunye norhwebo lwamanye amazwe, ukuseka ii-ofisi zeposi, kunye nokunyusa imikhosi. Urhulumente worhulumente ukwanezixhobo ezichaziwe ezisuka kwi-I, Icandelo 8, Clause 18), njengoko kumiselwe ku Mcloch. Maryland
  • Imithetho egciniweyo: Ugcino loMmiselo weshumi lamaGqibelo kumazwe nawuphi na amagunya anganikwanga iUnited States okanye angagunyaziswanga kumazwe. Ezi ziquka ukulawula urhwebo lwezomhlaba, ukuqhuba unyulo, ukuseka oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ukulungiselela imfundo kawonke-wonke, nokuqhelisela amapolisa impilo kawonke wonke, ukhuseleko, kunye nokuziphatha.
  • Amandla akhoyo: omabini amanqanaba ayabelana ngamandla afana nokuhlawulwa, ukuboleka imali, ukwakhiwa kwendlela, ukuseka iinkundla, nokumisa imithetho. Xa kuvela ungquzulwano, iSupremacy Claus idla ngokukhetha umthetho wesizwe, ingathi ngumGaqo-siseko.

Le candelo lidala isakhiwo esithambileyo esiye salungelelanisa ukutshintsha kweemfuno zesizwe ngeli xesha sigcina ukuzimela kwelizwe kwimimandla emininzi. Noko ke, imida echanekileyo ishiyekile, njengoko ibonwa kwimiqathango eqhubekayo yemimiselo yemeko-bume, imiqathango yempilo, kunye nokugcinwa kolawulo lokufuduka.

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekulawuleni Umanyano

INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengomxhasi oyintloko weempikiswano zephondo-nesichotho. Ngezigqibo eziphawula iziganeko eziphawulekayo, iye yandisa yaza yavala ulawulo lwamaqumrhu.

Amacala Angundoqo Andisa igunya lomanyano

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): INkundla yathi urhulumente wengingqi unamagunya achaza ngaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo, kwaye loo matyala akanako ukuhlawula irhafu yamaziko karhulumente. Esi sigqibo sigxininisa ubukhulu borhulumente.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Watolika uClaus worhwebo ukuquka nawuphi na umsebenzi onqamleza imigca karhulumente, emisela ulawulo olubanzi lwezwe kuhambo ngenqanawa norhwebo.
  • Indlebe yase Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964): ISihlomelo II seSivumelwano saMalungelo esiphakathi, silawula ukuba ucalulo lobuhlanga kwindawo yoluntu kwindawo yoluntu luchaphazela kakhulu urhwebo lwamazwe.

Oyena Mbalwa ubalulekileyo Olinganisela Igunya Lomanyano

  • United States v. Lopez (1995): Ukudiliza uMthetho weMimandla yeSikolo Esikhululekileyo Semipu, okuphethe ukuba ukuba nemipu kufuphi nesikolo akuchaphazeli kakhulu urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo. Oku kwaphawula okwesihlandlo sokuqala kumashumi eminyaka kwiNkundla elinganiselweyo amandla entengiso kaBhunga.
  • Shicilelaz v. United States (1997): amacandelo athenjiwe eBrady Handgun Prevention Act efuna ukuba urhulumente kunye nomthetho wasekuhlaleni aqhube uvavanyo lwemvelaphi, elawula ukuba urhulumente akakwazi ukuwisela amagosa karhulumente umthetho.
  • IFoderal Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Wawugqala uMgaqo woKhatho olungahlawulekiyo njengomthetho womntu ngamnye njengerhafu kodwa waphelisa ulwandiso olunyanzelekileyo lweMedicaid, ukuqinisekisa ukuba iimeko azinakunyanzelwa ukwamkela iinkqubo zikarhulumente.
  • Shelby County v. Hoker (2013): Ukurhoxiswa kwemithetho yokugquma yeSivumelwano samalungelo abantu, elawula ukuba urhulumente wesizwe kufuneka asebenzise ugcino-lwazi lwangoku kuneenkqubo zembali ukugqiba ukuba yeyiphi imeko efuna ukuqhubekeka kwamaxesha angaphambili.

La matyala abonisa umlo oqhubekayo wokugweba ukuze kuqinisekiswe ulungelelwano lwegunya.

Umanyano kuLawulo lwangaphambili

Umgaqo-nkqubo wezonyango

UMthetho we-Affordcules Care (ACA) umisela umzekelo woxinezeleko olufumaneka kwi-ACA. Ngelixesha urhulumente wengingqi emisela imigangatho encinci kwaye enika inkxaso-mali, urhulumente usebenza ii-inshorensi zempilo kwaye angandisa iMedicaid(okanye angakhetha ukungawusebenzisi. Ngowama-2024, amaphondo kunye namaphondo aseColumbia e-Oficid anwebileyo phantsi kwe-ACA, eshiya amaphondo angandiswanga nyaka. Oku kucazulu kudala ukungavisisani okubalulekileyo kwintengo kunye neziphumo zempilo ngaphaya kwemigca yombuso.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Imithetho yemekobume efana ne-Celean Air Act ne Clean Water Act ivumela amazwe ukuba azalisekise iinkqubo zawo, phantsi kwemvume yemekobume engqongileyo (EPA). Noko ke, amaxesha amaninzi, amatyala acela ucelomngeni kwimithetho yesizwe ye-(California i-'s'ir'ir'umsindisi othe qobayo' ukumisela imilinganiselo engqongqo yokukhupha inqwelo-moya ingumqondiso. Ukulawula kweNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo [20222] kwi-West Virginia v. EPA

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Indima karhulumente kwimfundo ngokwesithethe egxininise ekuxhaseni ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokulinganayo. IThe Everseeds Act (ESSA) yonyaka ka-2015 inciphisa ulawulo olubalulekileyo kwimimandla nemimandla, inciphisa ukujongwa kwemiqathango esesikweni nokubekwa kwetyala kwesikolo. Kodwa iingxoxo ezingolwazi lwezifundo zesikolo, iincwadi zeethala leencwadi, kunye nengcamango egxekayo yohlanga zibangele ukuba abantu bafune ukulawulwa kwasekuhlaleni kunye nolawulo oluphakathi.

Ubulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho Nokugunyaziswa KwamaMarjuana

Umkhosi wolawulo udala umsebenzi odityanisiweyo wemithetho karhulumente kwi-cannabis. Kusukela ekuqaleni konyaka wama-2025, amaphondo angama-24 kunye neSithili saseColumbia ziye zagunyazisa ulonwabo lwembanje, ngelinye ixesha uninzi luvumela ukusetyenziswa kwezonyango. Kodwa umya uhlala uyiShedyuli I ephantsi komthetho karhulumente, udala iingxabano phezu kwebhanki, intengiselwano yengiselwano yengiselwano, kunye nezinto eziphambili zomthetho wolawulo. Iinkqubo zomthetho zomthetho womthetho weSebe lokugcina i-Jajini zitshintshile nolawulo ngalunye, ibonisa indlela ingqiqo yegunya elilawulayo elinokuyitshintsha ngayo inkqubo kazwelozwe-ne/state.

Unyanzeliso lofuduko

Ukufuduka kungumsebenzi oyintloko karhulumente, kodwa urhulumente ufuna ukubandakanywa ngokukhulayo. I-SB 1070 ye-Arizona (2070) izama ukunika ukunyanzelisa ukugcinwa komthetho karhulumente ukukhangela ubume bokufuduka, kukhokelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo engekho mthethweni e] Arizona b. United States [202]. Ngokuchaseneyo, imigaqo ilinganisela intsebenziswano yasekuhlaleni namagunya okufuduka karhulumente, ikhuphisa iimfazwe ezisemthethweni kumthetho kunikezelo kunye neSinyuko se-Heth Demplete.

Imbono Ethelekisayo: Umanyano Emhlabeni Wonke

Asilololo United States lodwa elisebenzisa ulawulo lwamagunya. Ezinye iinkqubo zikarhulumente ziquka iJamani, iKhanada, iIndiya, i-Australia, iBrazil neSwitzerland. Ngoxa ilizwe ngalinye livumelanisa urhulumente nomongo walo, imisonto eqhelekileyo iquka umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo, ulwahlulo lwemimandla, kunye nenkqubo yokulungisa iimpikiswano eziphakathi korhulumente.

  • IsiJamani:[ uMthetho osisiseko umisela ubuzwe obunentsebenziswano kunye nomanyano oluthe tyaba phakathi kweLänder (isimi samazwe). IBundesrat (indlu engaphezulu) imela oorhulumente besizwe.
  • Canada: UMthetho woMgaqo-siseko ka-1867] unika amaphondo amandla adweliswe kwimimandla enjengemfundo kunye nonyango, ngelixa urhulumente wesizwe ephethe amagunya okuphinda abekho. Urhulumente waseKhanada ulungelelaniswa ngakumbi kunemodeli yenkqubo yentlalo.
  • Indiya: isoloko ichazwa njenge “quasi-federal,” umgaqo-siseko weIndiya umisela amandla angakumbi kurhulumente wesizwe, amazwe efuna ukutshatyalaliswa nguMongameli phantsi kweemeko ezithile.

Ukufundisisa ezinye iinkqubo zorhulumente kunikela ukuqonda ngoludwe lwamalungiselelo anokufumaneka okulungelelanisa umanyano nolwahluka - hluka.

Iingenelo Neengxaki ZobuProtestanti

Iingenelo

  • [[FLT: 0] Izakhono zomsebenzi: Amazwe angalinga ngemigaqo eyahlukeneyo ```````'''''''''''''. Ingathi ngumsebenzi wempilo-wonke, ikharbon crige, okanye utshintsho lwemfundo---alufaki mngcipheko wokoyisaka. Uvavanyo oluphumelelayo lungamkelwa kumgangatho wezwe lonke.
  • Inxaxheba engakumbi kwezobupolitika: Abami baneendawo ezininzi zokubophelela: iibhodi zesikolo zasekuhlaleni, iindlu zowiso-mthetho, kunye neBhunga lorhulumente. Esi sakhiwo singenza urhulumente aphendule ngakumbi kwaye aphendule.
  • IChecks kuMandla aseMbindini: Ukucutha ulawulo, ukunciphisa ubungozi bobuzwilakhe ngokunikel' ingqalelo kumgangatho omnye.
  • Ulungiso lobuGcisa loNyaka lweNdidi: luvumela imimandla enezithethe, izoqoqosho, okanye ubunikazi ukuba ivumelane nemigaqo-nkqubo yokhetho lwasekuhlaleni.

Iingxaki

  • Ubungalingani kunye nomahluko: Abami kumazwe awahlukeneyo banokuba nolwahlulo olwahlukileyo kakhulu kunyango, imfundo, neenkonzo zentlalo. Umzekelo, ulwahlulo lweMedicaid lubangele umahluko othe tyaba kumazwe angengawo amaqondo omlinganiselo weqondo lombane.
  • Ukugquma nokudityaniswa: ngaphaya kolawulo lokuqhwaba lungadala udideko, ukungafezeki, kunye nemimiselo engqubanayo, ingakumbi amashishini asebenza kwiintambo zelizwe.
  • IConfulist and Litigtion: ikhupha impikiswano kukukhululwa kwemali yesebe, imigudu yokwahlula, kunye nemiyalelo engagunyaziswanga isoloko ikhokelela kumadabi enkundla abiza imali eninzi.
  • I-race- ukuya-- ezantsi kwemikhulu: Amazwe akhuphisanayo kushishino angathoba iirhafu, ukukhuthuza, okanye ukunciphisa inkcitho yentlalo, enokuthi icuthe imigangatho yesizwe.

Ezi zikhuphiswano ziphuma kumthetho nakweyiphina inkqubo. Ucelomngeni lwabenzi bomthetho kukubopha iingenelo ngeli lixa zinciphisa imiqobo.

Umanyano Nekamva Lolawulo LwaseMerika

Umanyano loluntu asiyongcinga emileyo; luguqula ukuphendula kwiimeko ezinzima, utshintsho lobugcisa, kunye nokutshintsha kwemiqolo yezobupolitika. Isifo se-COVID-19 sibhenca amandla nobuthathaka bempendulo yoluntu ezifanelekileyo. Utshintsho lwemozulu lufuna ukulungelelaniswa kwesenzo sombuso kodwa lubangela imisebenzi yomthetho-mthetho. Ubugcisa be-Emerging obufana nobungeyoyobukrele bokwenziwa, ugcino-lwazi, kunye nezithuthi ezizimeleyo ziphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngabagunyazi okanye umgaqo karhulumente ufanelekile kusini na.

Ukuthatyathwa kwezobupolitika kukwandise impikiswano ye-operalitika yorhulumente. Amanye amazwana agxininisa ulawulo ngokuchasene nemigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente yokuqhomfa, amalungelo empumlo, kunye nokuvota. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sama-2022 [202] kwi-Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[, ukubhukuqa ukubhukuqa. [[FLT]] ., kwabuyisela imiqathango yokuqhobo, kwavelisa ukungquzula okuphawulekayo kwimithetho yesizwe. Oku kubonisa indlela iNkundla enokuthi ikwazi ngayo ukutshintsha umlinganiselo wombuso.

Ukuqonda uburhulumente kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuyiqonda indlela yokulawula yaseMerika, umthetho, kunye nezobupolitika. Ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye nemimandla kubumba phantse yonke imiqathango phantse phantse isuka kwimpilo nemfundo ukuya kumalungelo asekuhlaleni kunye nemekobume. Njengoko uhlanga lujamelana neengxaki ezintsha, isiseko sorhulumente siya kuqhubeka sivavanywa, silungelelaniswe, kwaye sitolikwa kwakhona.

Ukuqhubeka kufundwa, kuhlolwa [ U.S. kunye IsiHlalisi-mda se- ukusuka kwiZiko loLwazi olusemthethweni, kwakunye neNgqungquthela yesizwe yoLawulo lweLegislaturesm yemali yesizwe [ ukwenzela uhlaziyo lwenkqubo yequmrhu lorhulumente.