Ukwakhiwa Kwenkqubo Yasemthethweni: Imbasa yeeNkundla Nezityholo

Inkqubo yomthetho isisiseko salo naliphi na ibutho eliyalelweyo, lilungiselela inkqubo apho kusetyenziswa khona ubulungisa, iimpikiswano ziconjululwa khona, kwaye amalungelo omntu ngamnye ayakhuselwa. Enoba ungumfundi womthetho, umfundisi, okanye ummi nje ozama ukuqonda indlela inkqubo esebenza ngayo, ukuyiqonda indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkundla kunye nengqiqo yokulawula ibalulekile. Olu khokelo lwandisiweyo luhlola umaleko weqela lezomthetho, iindidi ezahlukeneyo zeenkundla, kunye nemigaqo echaza apho amatyala athethwa khona nendlela aviwa ngayo. Ngokuqonda ezi zisiseko, uzuza ukuqonda indlela ezinokwenziwa ngayo izigqibo zomthetho nendlela ezilawula ngayo ubomi bethu.

Yintoni Inkqubo Engokwasemthethweni?

Inkqubo yomthetho ingaphezulu kunengqokelela yemithetho; lisixhobo sombutho esichaza, esisebenzisa, nesinyanzelisa loo mithetho. Siquka iinkundla, abagwebi, amagqwetha, kunye nemithetho ebhaliweyo eqinisekisa okusesikweni nokungaguquguquki. Iinkqubo ezininzi zale mihla zomthetho ziwela kwenye yeenkonzo eziphambili: umthetho oqhelekileyo [iiiiiindlela] (isetyenziswe eUnited States, uBukumkani baseUnited, kunye namathangamputha amaninzi aseBritane) kunye nomthetho wezomthetho wesiKhawuthi] (isetyenziswe kwimimandla yelizwekazi ye-Yurophu, i-Afrika, neMelika yaseMzantsi). Ngoxa zombini zisebenzisa usukelo lokuhambisa okusesikweni, ukwahluka kwimithetho yemithetho yezomthetho, nendlela esetyenziswa ngayo.

Kwinkqubo zomthetho eziqhelekileyo, izigqibo zomthetho, ingakumbi ezo zivela kwiinkundla eziphezulu zenza ubunzima obubalulekileyo kwaye zinokumisela imizekelo ebophelelekileyo kwiimeko zexesha elizayo. Lo mgaqo, owaziwa njengo stares decisis (ukuma kwe-Latin "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe"), udala iqumrhu elizinzileyo nelithe tyebekileyo lomthetho. Kwinkqubo yezomthetho wamakhaya, iinkundla zixhomekeke kakhulu kwikhowudi nemithetho ebhaliweyo, kunye nemizekelo egwebayo edlala indima ephambili. Ukuqonda oku kunceda ukuchasana kwezakhiwo zenkundla kucacisa isizathu sokuba iintendelezo ezisemacaleni zishiyeke ngokuphawulekayo.

Icala Eliphambili Leenkundla

Inkoliso yeenkqubo zomthetho eziququzelela iinkundla kwiqela lemfundo elichazwe ngokucacileyo. Esi sakhiwo sivumela ukubhena nokuqinisekisa ukuba imibuzo yomthetho ihlaziywa kumgangatho onegunya oya usiba nzulu. I-piramidi eqhelekileyo iquka iinkundla zamatyala ezisemazantsi, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo encotsheni. Umgangatho ngamnye unemisebenzi namandla ahlukeneyo.

1. Iinkundla zokugweba (IiNkundla zeQelelo lokuqala)

Iinkundla zetyala zilapho kuqalisa khona. Maxa wambi zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesithili, iinkundla eziphakamileyo, okanye iinkundla zesiphaluka, kuxhomekeke kwigunya. Kulo mkhamo, inkundla ifumana ubungqina, ivavanya amangqina, ize igqibe izibakala zetyala. Ijaji okanye ijaji (kwinkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo) ngoko isebenzisa umthetho kwezo ziko ukuze ifikelele isigqibo.

Iinkundla zetyala zisingatha zombini [[Nkundla 1] no imicimbi yetyala. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente umangalela umntu ngamnye ngokutyholwa ngokophula umthetho. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, iqela elinye (ummangalelwa) liphendulisa elinye (ummangalelwa) ukusombulula impikiswano ngemali, impahla, okanye amalungelo. Iinkundla zamatyala zikwasebenza imisebenzi ebalulekileyo yolawulo, efana nokuphendla nokuphatha imirhumo yokuqululwa.

Iimpawu eziphambili zeenkundla zamatyala ziquka ezi:

  • Banee- translates zomphambili
  • Zizinkulu eziphambili zogcino-lwazi olufumanayo kunye nobungqina.
  • Izigqibo zabo zinokubhenela kwinkundla ephakamileyo.

Kwinkundla zamatyala, kusoloko kukho amacandelo akhethekileyo. Umzekelo, ulawulo oluninzi lwahlukeneyo luneenkundla ezithe tye ezithe tye], iinkundla ezincinane ezithelekelelayo, kunye iinkundla ezichanekileyo[[FLT:]]. La maqela avumela inkqubo esemthethweni ukuphatha iindidi eziphezulu zetyala elithile ngokunempumelelo.

2. IiNkundla eziphandayo eziphakathi

Iinkundla zetyala, ezikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zamacandelo adluliselweyo, aziqhubeli matyala. Endaweni yoko, zihlola amatyala eenkundla zamatyala ukufumanisa enoba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zichaphazele iziphumo. Abagwebi bahlolisisa ingxelo yamatyala($transcript, ubungqina, kunye neempikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni) kunokuva ubungqina obutsha okanye ukubiza amangqina.

Iinkundla zetyala zijolise ingqwalaselo kumbuzo womthetho kunokuba ibe yimibuzo yenyani. Umzekelo, ukuba ijaji yetyala ivumele ubungqina obungaqondakaliyo, okanye ukuba imiyalelo yabachopheli-tyala ayiwuphumeleli umthetho, inkundla ejongela phantsi okanye ingasiguqula isigqibo senkundla evavanyiweyo. Kwezinye iimeko, inkundla yenkundla yetyala ingayalela ityala elitsha. Inkundla ye-intermediaste appelta ifumaneka kwiinkqubo ezininzi zelizwe nezolawulo zikarhulumente, inika uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwizigqibo zenkundla evavanyiweyo.

Iinkalo ezibalulekileyo zohlolo olunenkcazelo ephantsi ziquka:

  • Ityala lidla ngokuviwa [[Nkqutyana] nepanel yabagwebi (ekusoloko kusithiwa ntathu), hayi ngumgwebi omnye.
  • Iinkupho zenkundla ezibhaliweyo [[FLT: 0] iipropekiso zichaza indlela eziqiqa ngayo, ezinokuba ngumzekelo kumatyala exesha elizayo.
  • Uninzi lwezibheno zifumaneka ngokusemthethweni, `inkundla elawulayo' ikhetha amatyala okuva/akazi) amanye aqinisekiswe ngomthetho.

3. IiNkundla eziPhakamileyo (IiNkundla zokugqibela)

Inkundla ephakamileyo yeyona iphakamileyo kwigunya eliphakamileyo. Kwinkqubo yorhulumente njenge-United States, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ihlala phezu kwazo zombini iinkundla zephondo nezorhulumente (nangona rhulumente ngamnye unenkundla yakhe ephakamileyo, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ingunogada wokugqibela kwimibuzo karhulumente esemthethweni). Izigqibo zenkundla ephakamileyo zigqibele kwaye zibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi eziphantsi kolawulo lwayo. Zingalawulwa kuphela sisigqibo senkundla enkulu kamva okanye lutshintsho lomthetho-mthetho-siseko okanye ulawulo.

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zisingatha amatyala abandakanya imibuzo esemthethweni esemthethweni `] `ii-intepho ezichaphazela ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko, imimiselo, okanye amalungelo asisiseko. Zikwaqinisekisa ukudibana komthetho, ukucombulula iingxabano phakathi kweenkundla ezahlukeneyo. Kwiinkqubo ezininzi, inkundla ephakamileyo inelungelo lokukhetha ukuba yeyiphi izicelo zokuphulaphula, isoloko inika uhlolo kwinani elincinane kuphela lamatyala.

Imisebenzi ephawulekayo yeenkundla eziphakamileyo:

  • Bawutolika umgaqo - siseko baze babhukuqe imithetho ewuchasayo.
  • Bacombulula iingxabano phakathi kwamazwe okanye phakathi korhulumente karhulumente namagunya.
  • Ayayilawula yonke inkqubo yokugweba, emisela imithetho engokwesiko yaye elawula imigaqo esesikweni.

Ukuqonda Isityholo

Iliqumrhu ligunya ekufuneka inkundla ilive kwaye igqibe ityala. Yingcamango esisiseko kuba inkundla ayinakwenza ngaphaya kwemida yayo. I Julistia idla ngokonakalisa ibezintlobo ezintathu ezingundoqo: igeographic[, [[FLT:]], [FLT]] umba ongundoqo [[[FLT:] [[FLT]] umisela ukuba inkundla inamandla phezu kwento ethile okanye umntu ngamnye.

Uphando lwejiyografi

Isebe lezolawulo lwezolawulo limisa indawo ephathekayo inkundla enokusebenzisa igunya layo.

  • iinkundla zasekuhlaleni (iintendelezo zephondo) zisingatha amatyala aqukunjelwa kwisixeko okanye kwingingqi, njengokwaphulwa okuncinane kwendlela okanye iimpikiswano ezincinane zamakhaya.
  • Iinkundla zesizwe [ zinegunya kumatyala akwimida yesizwe. Inkoliso yamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho kunye nabemi aviwa kwiinkundla zephondo.
  • Iinkundla zezemfazwe kumazwe afana ne-United States zinolawulo olulinganiselweyo lwezwe, oludla ngokugquma lonke uhlanga kodwa oluphantsi kwemiqathango yomthetho karhulumente. Ziva amatyala abandakanya imimiselo karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko, okanye iimbambano phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo (ulawulo lolawulo lolawulo lolawulo).

Umgwebo Oyintloko

Ulawulo lwemibandela lubhekisele kwiintlobo zamatyala inkundla egunyazisiweyo ukuva. Iinkundla zisoloko zingoonogada bokusingatha imimandla ethile engokwasemthethweni, enyusa ukuphumelela nobuchule. Iindidi eziqhelekileyo ziquka:

  • iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho: amatyala apho urhulumente egweba abantu ngokophulwa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho (umz., ubusela, ukuhlasela, ukubulala).
  • iinkundla zeCivil: Ukucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo, ezifana nezivumelwano, iimpikiswano zokonzakalisa kobuqu, nokungavisisani ngempahla.
  • Iinkundla zosapho: Ukusingatha imicimbi enxulumene nentsapho kuquka uqhawulo-mtshato, ilungelo lokugcina umntwana, ukukhulisa umntwana, kunye nemiyalelo yogonyamelo lwasekhaya.
  • [[UMTHETHO:0] Iinkundla zeprojekthi: jonga ngaphaya ulawulo lwezabelo kunye nezivumelwano, kwakunye neenqanawa zokukhusela kunye neenqanawa zokuhlanganisa.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iinkundla zeTax, iinkundla zokubhaliswa kwamalungelo omntu, kunye neenkundla zezolawulo: Cacisa imimandla yemibandela ekhethekileyo, ngokufuthi ngemithetho yayo yenkcubeko.

Kwezinye iinkqubo zomthetho, inkundla inokuba nolawulo lombuso , ithetha ukuba ingava phantse naluphi na uhlobo lwemeko oluvela kwindawo yayo. Kwezinye, iinkundla zinegunya elilinganiselweyo[[FLT:] kwaye zinokuva kuphela iintlobo ezithile zamatyala.

Ukujongwa kwabantwana koqobo

Lo mahluko umisela ukuba inkundla iphulaphule ityala okokuqala (ulawulo lokuqala) okanye izigqibo ezisuka kwinkundla esezantsi (ulawulo lwasemthethweni). Iinkundla zetyala zinegunya lokuqala kwimicimbi emininzi. Iinkundla zenkundla ezilawulayo, kuquka iinkundla eziphakamileyo, ngokuyintloko zinegunya lokulawula. Noko ke, ezinye iinkundla eziphakamileyo (njengeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.) nazo ziyakwazi ukulawula igunya lantlalo kwiimeko ezithile, njengeempikiswano phakathi kwamazwe athile.

Ukuqonda lo mahluko kubaluleke kakhulu kwiqhinga elingokwasemthethweni: umkhandi kufuneka kuqala azise ityala enkundleni enolawulo lokuqala. Ukuba baphulukana, bangabhenela kwinkundla enolawulo oluphezulu, kodwa abanakukwazi ukutsiba imigangatho.

Isigqibo Sobuqu

Ngeli xesha ingasoloko iqukwa kwimiba esisiseko, igunya lomntu ngamnye libalulekile ngokufanayo. Libhekisela kwigunya lenkundla kumalungu abandakanyekileyo ekumangaleleni. Kwiimeko ezininzi, inkundla ifumana igunya lobuqu kummangalelwa ukuba ummangalelwa uhlala kwindawo yenkundla, wenza ishishini apho, okanye unonxibelelwano olwaneleyo nommandla. Ngaphandle kolawulo lobuqu, inkundla ayinakungena kumgwebo onyanzelisayo nxamnye nommangalelwa.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo nesinye isisombululo sempikiswano

Iinkqubo zomthetho zale mihla ziye zavela zaquka iinkundla kunye neenkqubo ezidlula imodeli yesithethe yetyala eliqulunqweyo. Iinkundla ezizimeleyo zithetha ngeengxaki ezithile zentlalo okanye zomthetho, ngeli lixa izisombululo zempikiswano (ADR) iindlela ezinika ngokukhawuleza nangendlela ezincinci zokucombulula iingxabano.

Iinkundla ezizodwa

Imizekelo yeenkundla ezikhethekileyo iquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] iinkundla zeziyobisi: Gxininisa kubuyelo lwendlela yonyango lwabenzi bolwaphulo-mthetho abangenobundlobongela beziyobisi, ugxininisa unyango ngaphezu kokubanjwa.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iinkundla zempilo yengqondo : dibanisa abamangalelwa ngeenkonzo zempilo yengqondo kwaye ujonge inkqubela-phambili yabo.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Iinkundla ze-ijaji: idilesi yetyala elijamelene namagqala asemkhosini, ngokufuthi ezinxulumanisa kwiingenelo kunye nokucebisa.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iinkundla zezorhwebo: Ukusingatha iimpikiswano ezintsonkothileyo zeshishini ngeenkqubo ezikhethekileyo kunye nabagwebi abaqhelene nomthetho wequmrhu.

Ezi nkundla zisebenza kwiqela elikhoyo kodwa zinika iindlela ezilungeleleneyo ezinokunciphisa ukuphinda kulungiswe kwaye ziphucule iziphumo.

Enye iNkxaso

I-ADR iquka [ ulwamkelo kunye ulwahlulo-magama. Kwi-mediation, ilungu lesithathu elingathathi-nxaxheba linceda amaqela aphikisanayo afikelele isivumelwano sokuzithandela. Kukuqukunjelwa, umququzeleli uva ubungqina kwaye ukhupha isigqibo esibophayo okanye esingabopheleliyo. I-ADR ixhaphake kakhulu ngenxa yokuba isoloko ikhawuleza, inciphisa, kwaye ingekho semthethweni kunendlela yokuya enkundleni. Iinkqubo ezininzi ezingomthetho zikhuthaza okanye zifuna amaqela ukuba azame i-ADR ngaphambi kokuba iqhubeke ukuqulungela.

Indima Yamabhokhwe Nabagwebi

Kwimiqathango emininzi yomthetho oqhelekileyo, abachopheli-tyala bayinxalenye eyintloko yenkqubo yenkundla echongiweyo. Inkundla yabachopheli-tyala liqela labemi abaqhelekileyo abava ubungqina baze bagqibe izibakala zetyala. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, abachopheli-mthetho bagqiba ukuba ummangalelwa unetyala na ngaphezu kokuthandabuza okufanelekileyo. Kwityala le-avareji, abachopheli-mthetho bagqiba ukuba ityala liphele kwaye bone umonakalo. Ngelixesha eli, abagwebi bamela ityala, balawula ityala, balawula kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni, kwaye bayalela abachopheli-jala umthetho.

Ijaji ikwanendima ebalulekileyo ekugwebeni amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho nasekutolikeni imimiselo nemizekelo elandelanayo. Kwinkundla ezigwebayo, abagwebi basebenza kumacandelo kwaye bagqibe imibuzo engokwasemthethweni ngaphandle kwenkundla yabachopheli-tyala. Iimbono zabo ezibhaliweyo zibumba umthetho wetyala okhokela izigqibo zexesha elizayo.

Ukubaluleka Kokuqhatha Nokukhanyisa

Enye yezona mpawu zinamandla zeenkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo yimfundiso yeli qhinga. Xa inkundla egwebayo okanye inkundla ephakamileyo ikhupha isigqibo, eso sigqibo siba ligunya elisibophayo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi kugunya elifanayo kwimiba engokwasemthethweni. Lo mgaqo, owaziwa njengo i-decis, uqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, nokusesikweni.

Noko ke, iinkundla zingabhukuqa eyazo imiqathango kwiimeko ezinqabileyo, umzekelo, ukuba isigqibo sangaphambili siphosakele okanye asisangeni kumaxabiso oluntu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. i-U.S. iyakuguqula okwahlukileyo ngqa kodwa imfundiso elinganayo kwi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954], ibonisa ukuba kwanenkundla ephakamileyo ingaguqula ikhondo xa ifunwa ngumthetho.

Isiphelo

Isakhiwo senkqubo yomthetho .-nemiqolo yayo yeenkundla, imida ecacileyo, nokunamathela kwimizekelo ecacileyo, kwaye imisela isiseko esizinzileyo sokuphatha okusesikweni. Ukusuka kwiinkundla zamatyala ezisingatha iimbambano zemihla ngemihla kwiinkundla ezilawula umgaqo-siseko, ilungu ngalinye lidlala indima ebalulekileyo. Kubafundi nabafundisi ngokufanayo, ukuqonda olu cwangciso kuvula ucango lokufunda ngokunzulu indlela imithetho esetyenziswa ngayo nendlela amalungelo akhuselwa ngayo. Njengokuba uluntu luguquka, ngokunjalo, zinjalo nemigaqo engundoqo yemigangatho yemigangatho yemigangatho, ulawulo, kunye nenkqubo esesikweni ihlala ihleli.

Ukuqhubekeka, khangela inkcazo yenkcazo yeenkundla, isakhiwo senkundla yequmrhu lesizwe U.S., okanye Ingcaciso ye-Greamment Information Institute ye-luvo .