Ukuchaza ulongamo lukaRhulumente kwimo yanamhlanje

Ulawulo lweziko lorhulumente ngumgaqo osisiseko onika igunya elipheleleyo nelokugcina kummandla wawo, abemi, kunye nemicimbi yangaphakathi. Kwingcamango yezopolitiko yamandulo, ingakumbi emva koxolo lwaseWestphalia olu-1888, ulawulo luthetha ukuba akukho gunya langaphandle elinokuthi lingene kwimicimbi yasekhaya. Namhlanje, le ngcamango iye yavela ukuze iquke ulawulo lwangaphakathi oluquka amandla okulawula nokunyanzelisa imithetho kurhulumente //nempumeko, nto leyo ebandakanya ukuqwalaselwa kwamanye amazwe kwisixokelelwano sezizwe ngezizwe. Ukuqonda indlela ezi zinto zimbini ezinokuchaphazelana ngayo imicimbi yelizwe elisebenzisana kubemi balo.

Amagunya angoorhulumente akhoyo achazwa ngeempawu ezine ezingundoqo: ummandla ochaziweyo, abemi abasisigxina, urhulumente onempumelelo, kunye nobuchule bokungenisa ulwalamano namanye amazwe. Kule nkqubo, urhulumente usebenzisa igunya lokusebenzisa irhafu ngokusemthethweni, uqokelela irhafu, ulawulo lobulungisa, kwaye unika izinto zikawonke-wonke. Noko ke, ulawulo lwalo gunya alunasiphelo okanye alupheliswanga. Iingxoxo eziququzelelwayo zivela kumthetho wesomgaqo-siseko, izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe, kunye nempembelelo ekhulayo yabadlali babadlali abakwindawo ezizimeleyo. Eli nqaku lihlola amagunya alawula abemi babo, imida engokwasemthethweni nezobupolitika kuloo magunya, kwaye ingxoxo eqhubekayo malunga nalapho ulawulo nenkululeko imele ikhutshwe khona.

Amandla KaRhulumente Alawula Abemi Bawo

Ulawulo lwezolawulo lwezoburhulumente lubonakala kumasebe amathathu aqhelekileyo karhulumente....I-glasi, i-arhente, kunye ne-"glasitive" (igunya lokulawula impilo, ukhuseleko, nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha) kunye “nommandla onamandla okuthatha impahla yangasese ukuze usetyenziswe ngokuhlawulela). Ngapha koko amasebe alandelayo achaza oko izazinzulu zezobupolitika zikubiza ngokuba“ ligunya lokulawula impilo, ukhuseleko, nokuziphatha okuhle) kunye“ namandla okusebenzisa intlawulo lwangasese ukwenzela ukuhlawulela).

Amandla Omthetho: Ukwenza Imithetho

Indlu yowiso-mthetho (inokuba yipalamente, ingqungquthela, okanye indibano) imisela imithetho ebophelelayo echaza ukuziphatha okuvumelekileyo, ukwabelana ngobuncwane, nokuseka amalungelo nemisebenzi. Amagunya angundoqo owiso-mthetho aquka:

  • Isohlwayo nesohlwayo – ukubhena kusebenza njengobusela, ukuhlasela, okanye ukuqhatha nokunika izigwebo ezinjengentengo, ukuvalelwa entolongweni, okanye inkonzo yoluntu.
  • [[UTRAP: 0] Intengiso – ukubeka irhafu kwingeniso, kwimpahla, kwintengiso, kunye nentengiselwano ukuxhasa iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke, izibonelelo, kunye neenkqubo zentlalo.
  • Umgaqo wezoqoqosho – ubeke imithetho yezorhwebo, iibhanki, iimarike zemisebenzi, ukhuseleko lwemeko-bume, kunye nokhuseleko lwabathengi.
  • Inkqubo yezobupolisa – Ukuzimela inzuzo yentlalo-ntle, yempilo, yemfundo, kunye noncedo lwezindlu, kwakunye nokumisela imivuzo encinane kunye neemeko zokusebenza.
  • Ukufuduka nokufuduka – ukuchaza ofanele ummi, indlela abaphambukeli abanokuzenza ngayo izinto zemvelo, kwaye phantsi kweemeko ezingezozabantu abahlalayo okanye bagxothwe.

Amandla omthetho akaphelelanga; ngokuqhelekileyo anyanzelwa ngumgaqo-siseko okanye yimali yamalungelo ekhusela inkululeko esisiseko (engamaphepha, yonqulo, engqungquthela) yaye ayithinteli imithetho elawulayo, isohlwayo senkohlakalo, okanye uphando olungekho ngqiqweni. Ngokomzekelo, uMgaqo-siseko Wokuqala we-U.S. uthintela iBhunga leMithetho ukuba i-grainmentation ingabi nankululeko yokuthetha, kwanokuba inkoliso yabaseki bemithetho inqwenela ukwenza njalo.

Amagunya alawulayo: Ukunikezela nokulungiselela

Isebe eliphetheyo ($__ihobe eliphethe umongameli, umphathi-mikhosi, okanye irhuluneli) linegunya lokunyanzelisa imithetho, ukumisela iinkqubo zikarhulumente, nokulawula amaqumrhu karhulumente. Imisebenzi yezolawulo oluphezulu iquka:

  • [[Umthetho:0] unyanzelo lwasemthethweni – Ulawulo lwamapolisa, ulawulo lomda, kunye namaziko olawulo lokufumana abaphula umthetho kunye nokulondoloza ucwangco.
  • Ulawulo lwePublic – ukuqhuba izikolo, izibhedlele, iinkqubo zezithuthi, kunye nezitili-zixhobo; ukukhupha ilayisensi kunye nemvume; ukuqokelela iirhafu.
  • [[Ukhuseleko:0] ukhuseleko lohlanga nokhuseleko – ukugcina imikhosi exhobileyo, ukuqwalasela, nokusabela kwizisongelo ezifana nobugrogrisi okanye iintlekele zendalo.
  • Inkqubo ye- ye-Expand – i-i-Promothings withrefere izivumelwano, ezimela urhulumente kwimibutho yezizwe ngezizwe, kwaye ukulawula ukungena nokuphuma kwabantu nempahla kunqumle imida.
  • Amandla onyanzelo – Ngexesha lamanqam (amatyala, isiphithiphithi samakhaya, imfazwe), abalawuli bangayikhupha imimiselo, ukumisela amaxesha okufika kwexesha, okanye ukunqumamisa amalungelo athile, nangona ephantsi kohlolo lwamva lwejaji okanye lwemithetho.

Igunya elilawulayo lidla ngokuba yeyona ibonakalayo kubemi, njengoko lisebenzisana ngqo nobomi bemihla ngemihla .ukusuka ekuthumeleni amalayisensi okubuyisela irhafu. Umlinganiselo wabalawuli abanobuchule abanandiphekayo uyahluka-hluka kakhulu. Kwamanye amazwe, imiyalelo yezolawulo inokuphinda isetyenziswe ngaphandle kwemigaqo-mthetho, ngoxa kwamanye, umphathi ophetheyo unyanzelwa ngokungqongqo ngumalathisi wepalamente nomthetho wolawulo.

Amagunya Okugweba: Ukutolika Nokugweba

Ijudiary − iinkundla nenkundla − zinamandla okuchaza imithetho, okucombulula iimpikiswano, nokugqiba ubume bomGaqo-siseko wezenzo zikarhulumente. Amagunya eejaji achaphazela abemi aquka:

  • [[Umthetho:0] Isifungo esingumqondiso [ - Ukuqhuba izilingo zokufumanisa ukuba umsulwa okanye ukungabi natyala nokubeka izivakalisi ezisemthethweni.
  • I-Civil impikiswano yesigqibo [ – ukusombulula ungquzulwano phakathi kwabantu, amashishini, okanye phakathi kwabemi kunye norhulumente (umz., intlupheko, ii-start, iitorts).
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Uhlolo lwe-Judicial – Uhlalutyo lowiso-mthetho kunye nezenzo zegunya ukuqinisekisa ukuba bayavumelana nomgaqo-siseko namalungelo asisiseko.
  • Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu ngamanye – Isting myalelo wokuphelisa izenzo zorhulumente ezingekho mthethweni, ukunika i-habeas corpus ukuvavanya ukuvalelwa, kunye nomonakalo wokwaphulwa kwamalungelo.
  • isisombululo sempikiswano ephakathi – Ukukhuthaza ukuququzelela, ulwahlulo, nezinye iindlela ezingezo ze-actarial zokunciphisa ugcino-lwazi lwenkundla nokunika amayeza akhawulezileyo.

Ijaji ezimeleyo ijongwa ngokubanzi njengesiseko somthetho. Xa iinkundla zingakhethi buso kwaye zifikeleleka, abemi banokuxilonga ngokunyanisekileyo ngorhulumente. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, apho abagwebi bathotyelwa okanye bathotyelwe kwigunya eliphetheyo, igunya lephondo linokuba likhethe kwaye amalungelo abemi abuthathaka.

Ulawulo lwangaphandle: Umahluko oneziphumo

Political theorists distinguish between internal sovereignty—the state’s exclusive authority within its borders—and external sovereignty—its independence from outside interference. Internal sovereignty allows the state to enact binding laws on all persons and property within its territory. External sovereignty, by contrast, concerns how the state interacts with other sovereign states and international bodies. The erosion of external sovereignty through globalization, supranational unions (like the European Union), and international human rights law has major implications for the powers states can exercise over citizens.

Ngokomzekelo, xa ilizwe lithe langenela iNkundla yeZizwe ngezizwe Yezolwaphulo-mthetho, linikezela inxalenye yelungelo lalo elilawulayo ukumangalela abemi balo ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe. Ngokufanayo, izivumelwano zorhwebo zidla ngokufuna ukuba kuguqulwe imithetho yasekhaya ngezantsi njengemigangatho yemeko-bume okanye imithetho yempahla yenkcubeko nengqondo. /ukungalinganisi inkululeko yabo yokulawula. Abahlalutyi bathi ukufuduswa kwamandla kunciphisa ukubekwa ityala kolawulo lwedemokhrasi ngenxa yokungakwazi ukulawula izigqibo ezenziwa kumazwe akude. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba ulawulo oludityanisiweyo lunganyusa amalungelo nentlalo entle yabemi kumgangatho ohlukeneyo wesizwe.

Imida Kumandla Karhulumente: UmGaqo-siseko, Amalungelo, noMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe

Imeko nganye, enoba inamandla kangakanani, isebenza kwimiqathango elinganisela igunya layo phezu kwabemi. Le miqathango ibalulekile ekuthinteleni ingcinezelo nasekulondolozeni isidima soluntu. Ivela kwimithombo emininzi:

Imigaqo-nkqubo yomgaqo-siseko neeBhili zaMaLungelo

Urhulumente omninzi unomgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo obala amalungelo asisiseko kwaye amisela isiseko sikarhulumente. Imida engundoqo yomgaqo-siseko iquka:

  • Ukwahlula amagunya – ukukhupha igunya phakathi kwabalawuli, oorhulumente, namasebe okugweba ukuze kungabikho sebe lilawula kakhulu.
  • IFederali okanye ukwenziwa kubenesidima - - ukunikezela amagunya athile kwiyunithi zezizwe ngezizwe (amazwe, amaphondo, oomasipala) ukuthintela ukuxhatshazwa okusembindini.
  • [[NTL:0] Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye – iqinisekisa inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yendibano, yokushicilela, kunye neyobuqu; ikhusela ekuzikhetheni, iingozi eziphindwe kabini, nesohlwayo esingalinganiyo.
  • Inkqubo elindelekileyo kunye nemigaqo ekhuselweyo - Ifuna isaziso esilungileyo, iindlebe ezingakhethiyo, ilungelo lokucebisa, kunye nezibongozo phambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla.
  • unyulo lwePuriodic kunye nokuphendula ---Enyenyeza ukuba iinkokeli zijongene nohlolo oluqhelekileyo oluqhelekileyo kwaye ukuba abemi banenkqubo yokususa amagosa agqithe.

Imiqathango yomGaqo-siseko inyanzeliswa yinkundla ephakamileyo okanye esemthethweni. Umzekelo, inkcazo yoMthetho ekwi-Cornell Law ebalaselisa indlela uhlolo lomthetho eUnited States oluvumela ngayo iinkundla ukuba zidele imimiselo engqubanayo namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko.

UMthetho waMalungelo abantu Ehlabathi

Izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe `njenge Isibhengezo esingangqinelaniyo samaLungelo abantu', uMvumelwano wezizwe ngezizwe kuMalungelo aBalelwano nezobupolitika, kunye neNkomfa yaseYurophu engowokuhlonela amalungelo abantu(iiimbopheleleko kumazwe okuhlonela, ukukhusela, nokuzalisekisa amalungelo athile. Ezizixhobo zimisela ulawulo oluncinci lwemilinganiselo ekufuneka imigaqo-mthetho yasekhaya ihlangane nayo. Ngesivumelwano, abantu bangade bacenge amaqumrhu ehlabathi (umz, iNkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu) ukuvavanya ulawulo lwabo.

Uxanduva phakathi kolawulo namalungelo abantu lukhulu kakhulu kwimicimbi yokhuseleko lwesizwe. Emva ko-9/11, amaphondo amaninzi andisa amandla okuhlola, amabanjwa ngaphandle kokuvavanywa, nemiqathango yokuthetha, ewathethelela njengezinto eziyimfuneko ezizizo. Abameli bamalungelo abantu baphikisa ngelithi amanyathelo anjalo achasene nomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe yaye ulawulo lokwenyaniso lusetyenziswa ngokukhusela abemi, kungekhona ngokunciphisa inkululeko yabo.

Umthetho Wehlabathi Neekhorali

Ngaphandle kwezivumelwano, imigaqo ethile yomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe, , ngaphezu kwako konke, imilinganiselo ekhutshwayo (jus cogens) , ebophelela onke amazwe kungakhathaliseki ukuba ayavumelana nayiphi na imvume. Imithetho ye- Jus cogens iyalwalela uhlanga, ukuthuthunjiswa, ubukhoboka, ucalucalulo olucwangcisiweyo, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho olucwangcisiweyo oluchasene noluntu. Akukho rhulumente onegunya angathethelela izenzo ezinjalo ngokuzibiza igunya langaphakathi. Oku kubangela ukuba kubekho isiseko esingenakulinganiswa nesidima somntu, kwanorhulumente onamandla angenakusigqitha ngokusemthethweni.

Ucelomngeni Lwale Mihla Kulongamo Lwaseburhulumenteni Namalungelo Abemi

Inkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesihlanu ibangele ingcinezelo engathethekiyo kwiingcamango ezingokwesithethe zolawulo lukarhulumente. Ezi zicelo zitshintsha amagunya alawulayo nendlela awaphatha ngayo phezu kwabemi.

Ukudityaniswa Kwehlabathi Nokuhamba Kwamazwe

Ikomkhulu, iimpahla, ulwazi, kunye nabantu banqumla imida ngokulula. Iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe, iimarike zehlabathi, kunye nemigangatho yemivo yezorhwebo zinciphisa amandla karhulumente okulawula umsebenzi wezoqoqosho, ukukhusela ishishini lasekuhlaleni, okanye ukulawula ukuqhubekeka kolwazi. Abahlali basenokuthobela imithetho yamazwe angaphandle xa besebenzisa iinkonzo zamazwe ngamazwe okanye behamba kwamanye amazwe. Ukunyuka kwemiqathango yemali ebekelwe umgangatho nemali ehloniphekileyo kubangela ukuba irhafuthe kunye nolawulo lwemali.

Ulawulo lwamanani nokwanda

Kule minyaka iphakathi, amatyala athi alawula ngekhompyutha nangamaziko akhoyo kwintsimi yawo, oku kuye kwakhokelela kwimithetho efuna ukuhlaziywa kolwazi lwendawo, ukuxhathisa nokusebenzisana ngokufanelekileyo nomthetho. Ngoxa amanye amanyathelo enzelwe ukukhusela ubumfiliba okanye ukhuseleko lwesizwe, amanye abangela ukuba abantu bakwazi ukuqwalasela izinto ezikhoyo baze bangakwazi ukuzichaza. Ukulungelelanisa phakathi kolawulo lwamanani namalungelo asisiseko abemi kusoloko kuphikiswana.

Urhwebo Lwamazwe Ngamazwe: Umzekelo weEU

I-European Union imela olona vavanyo lunemanyuku okudibanisa ulawulo. Amacandelo aye atshintsha igunya kwiinkqubo zemali, urhwebo, ukhuphiswano, ukulima, kwaneinkalo zolwaphulo-mthetho kwi-EU. Imimiselo kunye nemiyalelo ye-EU inempembelelo engqalileyo kwiinkqubo zomthetho zesizwe, kwaye iNkundla yeSigwebo yaseYurophu ingalawula imithetho yesizwe. Oku kuye kwanyusa amathuba okuhamba kunye nezoqoqosho kubemi kodwa kwabangela ukunqongophala, njengoko kubonwa kwiBrexit nakwiimbambano zokufuduka nomthetho eHungary nasePoland. Imodeli ye-EU ibonisa ukuba ulawulo lungadityaniswa ngaphandle kokutshatyalaliswa, kodwa kwakhona kuphakamisa ukuncitshiswa kweminye indlela abahlali benokusebenzisa ngayo ulawulo olunentsingiselo lwede lwezo demo-demokhrasi.

Umanyano njengolongamo olwabelwe Kumazwe

Amazwe amaninzi, kuquka iUnited States, iKhanada, iJamani, neIndiya, ahlula ulawulo phakathi korhulumente ophakathi kunye neqela lengingqi. Esi sakhiwo sorhulumente simiqathango simisela amandla omgangatho ngamnye: urhulumente wesizwe ulawula kwimimandla ethile (inkqubo yelinye ilizwe, imigaqo-nkqubo, imali), ngexesha amazwe okanye amaphondo ehlala enegunya kwimfundo, amapolisa asekuhlaleni, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, kunye neenkonzo ezininzi zentlalo. Ngalo ndlela izakhamuzi zifumana ulawulo lwemigaqo-siseko, kunye namalungiselelo e-Gridi (njengeSindululo seshumi leSihlalo-mali) akhusela amandla abekwe kumazwe. Umanyano omanyano lwamazwe anokukhusela amaqela amancinane namaxabiso asekuhlaleni kodwa asekuhlaleni anokubangela iingxabano, njengoko kusenziwa yimithetho yezonkasazo zorhwebo, okanye ukunyanyekelwa kwempilo.

Ulwalamano lwesizwe sommi: Amalungelo, Imisebenzi, kunye noMthetho weNtlalo

Ulawulo lukarhulumente asingomsebenzi wendlela enye yokusebenzisa igunya. Kwakhona lubandakanya iimbopheleleko kubemi, ezisekelwe kwiingcamango zesivumelwano sentlalo. Izahlulo zombuso ezithethelela igunya lazo lomanyano.

Ukuba ngummi Namalungelo Akho

Ubumi lumanyano olusemthethweni olusemthethweni phakathi komntu nesizwe. Lunika umfumba wamalungelo, kuquka ilungelo lokuvota, lokuba nesikhundla sikawonke-wonke, ukufumana ukhuseleko lobuzwe kwelinye ilizwe, nokufumana iingenelo zoluntu. Lukwabeka imisebenzi, enjengokuthobela imithetho, ukuhlawula irhafu, nokukhonza kwiijaji okanye emkhosini xa kufuneka. Amazwe anenkululeko ebanzi yokuchaza amagunya obumi, kodwa umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ukunciphisa ubuzwe nemiyalelo engekho mthethweni.

Ukuhlawulwa kwerhafu noxanduva lokunikela

Mhlawumbi eyona ndlela icacileyo yokubonakalisa ulawulo lukarhulumente kubemi yigunya lerhafu. Irhafu yenza urhulumente akwazi ukunikezela ngeempahla zikawonke-wonke("defense, izibonelelo, imfundo, ukunyanyekelwa kwempilo--------"ukungafumani mpumelelo. Ukugunyaziswa kwerhafu kuxhomekeke kwimvume yedemokhrasi nakulawulo olufanelekileyo. Xa abemi bejonga inkqubo yerhafu njengengenabulungisa okanye urhulumente njengowonakeleyo, bangaxhathisa, nto leyo ekhokelela ekubalekeni kwerhafu okanye ekungathobeli. Iingxoxo zanamhlanje ngerhafu, ukuphepha irhafuthelo yenkampani, ukuphepha irhafu, kunye nezikhululo zerhafu zibonisa ukuba inkciso ihlala ingumgangatho ophambili wolawulo olusebenzayo.

Inkonzo yesizwe neembopheleleko zomkhosi

Urhulumente omninzi ufuna abemi ukuba benze inkonzo yasemkhosini okanye enye inkonzo yesizwe. Le mbopheleleko inyanzela abantu abaselula ukuba banikele iinyanga okanye iminyaka kwimisebenzi echaziweyo karhulumente. Imvume isoloko igwetyelwe ngokwezizathu zokhuselo lwesizwe kunye nomanyano lwentlalo, kodwa inokuba nempikiswano xa isetyenziselwa ukuthintela ukuchasana okanye xa isetyenziswa ngokuphandle. Amanye amazwe aye ashukumiselwa kuyo yonke imikhosi efuna inkululeko, kodwa amandla asisiseko karhulumente okunyanzela inkonzo ngexesha likaxakeka ahlala enelungelo elibalulekileyo.

Ukulungelelana Kwamandla Kwihlabathi Elitshintshayo

Ulwalamano phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente namalungelo omntu ngamnye lunamandla, lusoloko lukhutshiwe ngokwezobupolitika, umthetho, kunye nokutshintsha kwentlalo. Ngelixesha amazwe ehlala enamandla kakhulu ``anokulawula, anyanzelisa, anyanzelise, afake irhafu, kunye afune inkonzo-owona magunya anyanzeliswayo ngomthetho-siseko, umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe, kunye noluvo lukawonke-wonke. Ummi wale mihla akangomntu ongenzi nto kodwa ungumxhasi okhutheleyo ovumela namalungelo akhe ahlole ukufikelela kwelizwe.

Ukuqonda la magunya kunye nemida yawo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukulawula ubomi boluntu, ukuxhasa utshintsho, okanye nje ukuqonda indlela obulawulwa ngayo ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Njengoko kuvela ubugcisa obutsha, iingxaki zomhlaba, kunye nemigaqo yezobupolitika, impikiswano engobukhulu begunya elimele libe nalo urhulumente iya kukhula. Ucelomngeni lwebutho lolawulo-moya kukuqinisekisa ukuba ulawulo lomntu lusebenza, kungekhona enye indlela ekhoyo.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya ngendaleko yolawulo, i-Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy angeno kuBukhosi inika ushwankathelo olubanzi lwengcamango, ngeli lixa Izixhobo zamalungelo abantu kwiphepha ichaza isiseko somthetho wehlabathi esibumba ukuziphatha kwabemi.