Ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwezoburhulumente lumi njengomqobo onzima kakhulu ekugcineni oorhulumente betyala kwinkundla yorhulumente. Isekelwe kwiSinyuko seshumi elinesithoba, le mfundiso ikhusela ngokwesithethe ukuba kungamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Kodwa xa ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu kwenzeka ngomlinganiselo wesixokelelwano , iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke ezinganelanga, okanye iimeko ezingentle, okanye ukungavumelani norhulumente zixhomekeke kwiimeko zorhulumente. Izenzo zomthetho zokumangalelwa ziba ziyimfuneko ekunyangeni unyango. Ukudityaniswa kwemithetho ephezulu kunye namalungelo abantu kudala ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho esemthethweni exhobisayo, imfuneko yokuqhuba inkundla ephakamileyo, imizekelo ephakamileyo, ityala, iinguquko yemfundiso, iqhosayo, neenkomkhulu yenkundla xa kufunwa umgangatho wokuzikomkhulu wokhuseleko kwintlalo okanye kukhuthulo lweqela loncedo.

Imvelaphi Engokwembali Yokwahlulwa Kolawulo Oluphakamileyo Lwelizwe

Phambi kweMvukelo yaseMerika, umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi wawuthi isiKhunu asinakugwetywa ngaphandle kwemvume yaso. Amazwe amaMelika asandul' ukusekwa azuzwé ngokutsha lo mgaqo, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwawo kwinkqubo karhulumente kwavavanywa ngokukhawuleza. Ngo1793, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba IChoolm v. Georgia, 2 U.S 419 (1793), ivumela ummi wabucala osuka eMzantsi Carolina ukushela i-Georgia ngetyala. Isigqibo sabangela ucaphulo phakathi kwamazwe, owamoyika igunya lombuso lombuso kuMbuso we-Ostre.

Kwimpendulo, iBhunga ladlulisa iA111th Amendment ngowe-1795, lagunyazisa ngowe-1798, elithi: “Nangona amandla eeJaji eUnited States engasayi kuthathwa njengokwandisa nayiphi na isambatho kumthetho okanye ngokulinganayo, aqaliswe okanye agwetywe omnye we-United States yiMinize yaseMgadeni, okanye yiMisebenzi okanye iziGququ okanye iZigano zeLizwe laMazwe asemzini.” Nangona umbhalo wayo kuphela ungavumeli ukuhlawulwa yimi ye-Englamsting, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yandisa intengo yomthetho karhulumente. ityala le . v.[FLT], [1], 134.S.189090), iNkundla yayisithiwe yakwayi-Engula ngokuchasene nomgaqo woMdendebethi we-Gracm, ingu, inguwonga kwiimeko zenkundla ezilawula kwinkundla ezilawulayongameleyo

IQhosha lokuzikhusela koMongami alingomatshini nje kuphela."ibonisa ulungelelwano lomgaqo-siseko phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente nesidima sikarhulumente, elo iinkundla ziye zaziqinisa ngokuqhubekayo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini.

Umsebenzi Wanamhlanje: UMthetho - siseko Weshumi Nesithoba Nangaphezulu

I-gravity yezokhuselo lobungangamsha yale mihla iyavuma imiqathango emibini esisiseko kumatyala azimeleyo achasene namazwana. Okokuqala, urhulumente angawalawula ukhuseleko lwawo ngokuvuma ukulingana. Okwesibini, Iqela leqela lingafumana i-broute [[ ukukhusela ukukhusela xa usebenza phantsi kwamandla athile omgaqo-siseko, ngokubalulekileyo icandelo 5 loMfunxeko weshumi elinesine, ogunyazisa umthetho wokunyanzela amalungelo abantu. Ngaphezu koko, [[[FLTLT:]] Inxenye yemfundiso encinane [[FLT] ivumela ukubuyiseka kuncedo olulindelekileyo nxamnye namagosa, ikhupha urhulumente ngokwawo ngokwawo njengomnqamlezi.

INkundla Ephakamileyo ithe yaphelelwa ngocoselelo xa iNkundla yeNkqutyana isenokungavumelani. .[FTRITpatrick v. BIT, 427 U.S.197], iNkundla yathi iCandelo 5 loMphetho-Gawulayo uvumela iNkqutyana ukuba ilawule ukhuseleko lwesizwe. Kodwa kamva amatyala anciphisa amandla: ku ku-Squluko lwe-Florida[FLT].[FFOL:3], 517], U.S.19666), iNkugqiba kwelokuba iBround Cesalvet (eg.Greast Ingueast.) ngaphandle kokuba umgaqo wemiqatha yembali (5]

Ngezenzo zodidi lwamalungelo asekuhlaleni, oku kuthetha ukuba imimiselo enjengeSihloko VI soMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-nkqubo, isiHloko, okanye iCandelo lowe-1934 kufuneka iqwalaselwe ngenyameko ukugqiba enoba iCongress ifanelekile kusini na ukuthintelwa korhulumente. Ngokufuthi, ekuphela kwendlela esebenzayo kukumangalela amagosa karhulumente ngenxa yokukhululeka koncedo phantsi Ex i-Young, kunokuba afune imali elahlekileyo kurhulumente ngokwawo.

Izahlulelo Ezikhethekileyo Kumanyano Olusebukhosini

I-Waiver KaRhulumente

Urhulumente angavuma ngokuphandle ukuvumelana nomthetho okanye ngokuthabatha inxaxheba kucwangciso lwemeko olunolwamkelo lorhulumente oluthabatha inxaxheba kwi-oyiler. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba abachasi-mthetho kufuneka babe “bachaziwe ngokuphandle” kwaye abazukungachazwanga. ICollege Saving Bank v. Florida Predireary Education Board [[FLLT:1], 5277], U.S.669 (1999) ayiyi kukhanyelwa ingcamango yokuba imisebenzi karhulumente kwiintengiso ngokuzenzekelayo. Kwimisebenzi yeklasi, imidlalo echaphaza ijonge kwiimeko ezithile okanye eminye imithetho enika imvume elinganiselweyo, kodwa enqabileyo i-oklorvey'e.

Ukuhlaziywa kweNkcubeko ngaphantsi kweCandelo 5

IKhomishini ingayikhusela i- ichaza ngokucacileyo injongo yayo yokwenza oko kumthetho, kwaye (2) isebenza phantsi kwegunya elisemthethweni. ISekela elithembekileyo yiCandelo 5 loMphetho-weshumi elinesine. Nevada yeSebe leZintu zoluntu v. , 538 U.S. 721 [2001], iNkundla ixhasa iNkundla kunye ne-Crect yeMics's's's's's serverstment. [[FLT], 30], ukubethwalwa kwetyala ngenxa yokungamela ubufana , ngenxa yokuba ityala obungamiselwangangoko ubufanayo. Ngokuphikisanayo. [FLT:] Coleman v. iNkuphosalo kaMandlalo kaMagama a-U-U-30], u-U.[6]

Kumongo wodidi lwamalungelo abantu, abagwebi bachaza ucalucalulo lohlanga phantsi kweSihloko VI okanye isiHloko IX basoloko bejamelene nedabi lokunyuka ngenxa yokuba loo mithetho yenziwa phantsi kweSalathisi ka-Claus, hayi kwiCandelo 5. Ngelixesha isithi ukwamkela imali karhulumente ngokuchanekileyo ukulingana nokwaphuka kweemeko zesivumelwano, unyango lulinganiselwe kwintelekelelo okanye ukuchithwa kwemali / [h1] imali eyonakeleyo nxamnye norhulumente. Umthetho ohlawula imali awusebenzi kumthetho osebenzayo. .[PNT].

Bonakalisa Abaselula Nokukhululeka Okunokubonwa Ngethemba

Esona sixhobo sinamandla solwando lwamalungelo oluntu kwizenzo zodidi oluchasene namazwana iEx e Young imfundiso. Ex nxenyee Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1988), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabaphathi-mikhosi enyanzelisa umthetho ongalawulwayo ikhutshwe ukhuseleko lokhuseleko lususiwe kwaye isenokunyuselwa kwimpumlo elindelekileyo. Le ntso ibiphatha ihambo yegosasemthethweni njenge-evare. Imfundiso ivumela udidi ukuba luqhubeke nxamnye norhulumente (umz., umlawuli wentolongo, umbutho wemfundo, okanye unobhala-ntlalo ukuba umise ukuviswa kwemeko.

Umlinganiselo we Ex ee Young ubanzi kodwa ungenasiphelo. Ivumela kuphela ukukhululeka okungaphambili okujongwayo `iorders' ukuphelisa imisebenzi ethile okanye ukuthatha amanyathelo okuvuma/ukuyeka amanyathelo okubuyisa imali. Edelman v. Jordan, 415 U.S. 651104) icacisa ukuba iziphumo zobuyelo zivalelwe nokuba igosa elingummangalelwa. Ngoko ke, izenzo zeklasi ezifuna iinguqu ezikhoyo (umz. g., guqula iimeko zentolongo, ukufikelela kwezikolo zobulwelo) zilungele ukunikezelwa kwezi nkonzo ezinqamlezi, ngexesha lokuhlawula okanye ukuhlawula emva kwe-openbration.

Umanyano lwamalungelo oMlawuli kwizenzo zodidi lwamalungelo asekuhlaleni: Ucelomngeni olungundoqo

Izenzo zodidi zandisa amandla kunye nemigibe yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni. Xa udidi luqinisekisiwe ngokuchasene nombutho okanye igosa, kuqala inkundla kufuneka zifumanise ukuba urhulumente ungowoqobo na kwilungu loncedo. Ukuba isiqabu esifunwayo siyawuphelisa umgcini-mali welizwe, ukhuseleko lusenokusebenza. Oku kudla ngokukhokelela ekupheliseni i-bibliction: udidi kufuneka luqale lusinde kwintshukumo yokugxotha kwimimandla yokhuselo ngaphambi kokuba lufikelele ekufumaneni okufanelekileyo.

Enye imbambano ephindaphindwayo yiyo intlawulo . Nokuba udidi luphumelele ukukhululeka, ingayihlawula inkundla imali echasene nesizwe? Phantsi kweNkundla yamaLungelo e-fal Attorney i-Foward Areards ka-1976 (42 U.S.C 1988), imirhumo isenokunikwa urhulumente kuphela ukuba urhulumente uyakwazi ukukhusela imfuno okanye ukuba iBhunga eligunyazisiweyo ligunyaziswe ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yemali yemali ehlawulwa yi-ografesss. Inkundla ePhakamileyo e[Foct:2] [42].[FTTY:3], i-US.67] Imali enikwa ngokucothayo imvume yokuhlawula i-mali esemthethweni ngenxa yokuhlawula kwemali esemthethweni.

Olunye ucelomngeni lululo udidi lwe-creads ngokwalo. Ukhuseleko lolawulo lungachaphazela ubunjani kunye nokungagunyaziswa komelo ukuba abalawuli ababizwa ngokuba bathe bacela umonakalo wemali ngelixa udidi lufuna uncedo olungenaziphazamiso. Iinkundla zingafuna amaqela asezantsi okanye zinokulinganisela ingcaciso yeklasi kubantu abafuna ukukhululeka okulindelekileyo kuphela. Ngaphezu koko, xa urhulumente engabizwangaliqela, echaza ummangalelwa ofanelekileyo.[1] Igosaveri karhulumente onegunya lokuqinisekisa utshintsho oluceliweyo.

Impembelelo Yemichiza Ekhoyo

Ukhuselo lobuSomandla lululinganisela ngokuphandle unyango olunokufunyanwa ludidi lwamalungelo abantu. Ngezantsi lufutshane lweentlobo zoncedo eziqhelekileyo kunye nokukwazi kwazo ukukhusela umzimba phantsi kwemfundiso:

  • Isiqabu esiphangaleleyo (ingqikelelo): esivunyelweyo ngokuqhelekileyo Icandelo elincinane [ kumagosa karhulumente. Imizekelo: ulungelelwaniso lokuguqula iinkqubo, ukugunyazisa indawo yokuhlala kumabanjwa akhubazekileyo, okanye kufuna iinkonzo zoguqulelo kumaqumrhu kawonke-wonke.
  • Inkululeko yokwahlula: ivumelekile ukuba isebenza injongo ejongwa phambili, kodwa iinkundla zahlula phakathi kwezalathiso zetyala elidlulileyo (elifakwe) kunye nezibophelelo zexesha elizayo (evunyelweyo).
  • [[NTL:0] Umonakalo we-Monetary (ukuhlola): okqiniswe ngamandla ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente ulwenze ukhuseleko olubiwe (utsha) okanye iBhunga lifakelwe phantsi kwecandelo 5 (intloko-ngqwalaselo edibeneyo yohlolo- kunye nohlolo-luvo).
  • Imali ye-Attorney ye- ibekelwe phantsi ukuba ibotshelelwe kwi-injuncive kwaye iphathwa njenge-active, kodwa isengozini yokucelw'ucelo ukuba umrhumo ujongwa njengentlawulo ehlawulayo evela kumnini-mali.

Ngoko ke icebiso leklasi kufuneka liqale ngokubekwa koncedo oluphambili kunye nolucocekileyo xa kujoliswe abamangalelwa bakarhulumente. Ukuze bafumane umonakalo, kufuneka banike amagama amaziko orhulumente asekuhlaleni (oomasipala) angakhuselwanga yiyo yokwahlula ulawulo oluphezulu "okanye afune iisuti zobugosa-gosa-gosa ngabaphathi-mikhosi ukwenzela iintambo zomGaqo-siseko, nangona ukukhusela ukukhusela okufanelekileyo kunika omnye umaleko wendlela yokuzikhusela.

Ukuqwalaselwa Okufanelekileyo KooAttaff

Ukuvavanya ngempumelelo isenzo sodidi lwamalungelo abemi nxamnye nabadlali bakarhulumente kufuna uhlolo olulungeleleneyo kwasekuqaleni lokhuseleko lolawulo. Okokuqala, phawula ukuba ummangalelwa uyinto yenene yesizwe okanye ingalo karhulumente. Izinto ziquka indlela exhaswe ngayo, nokuba ingamangalelwa okanye imangalelwe, nokuba amatyala ayo angamatyala karhulumente. [Doe, 519 U.S. 425 (1997) unika uvavanyo oluthambileyo.

Okwesibini, gqiba uhlobo lwesothulelo esifunwayo. Ukuba umonakalo wemali ubalulekile, qwalasela ukuba iBhunga likhuselekile kusini na ngaphantsi komthetho odibana nedolo leBoerne v. Flores umgangatho wentengiso. Ukuba akunjalo, ukubophelela amagosa kumandla awo asemthethweni okukhusela alindele uncedo kuphela, kwaye uqwalasele ulwandiso lwento nganye echasene nemali ethile yabaphathi bebububhexele (kunye ke ezo zinto azibophini azibophini tyala).

Okwesithathu, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yesizwe. Amanye amaphondo amisele imimiselo yokuvumela ukuthatha imvume ukuya kutsho kwi-suit evumela izenzo ezithile zamalungelo abantu, kodwa ezi zinto zisoloko zibeka imiyalelo okanye uonobumba ekuqapheleni iimfuno okanye kwingozi.

Okwesine, sebenzisa i-leva Ex ee Young imfundiso naxa urhulumente elixhoba lokwenene. IFayili isikhalazo esibiza unobhala welizwe ofanelekileyo, umkhomishinala, okanye umalathisi kumandla abo asemthethweni, kwaye ucacise ngokucacileyo ukuba isiqabu esiceliweyo silindele ukuba `ukuzimisela ukuphelisa umthetho wesizwe. Kuphephe naluphi na ulwimi olucebisa umgwebo womonakalo odlulileyo.

Ekugqibeleni, qwalasela ukudityaniswa kwemiqobo enkundleni yeli lizwe. Ngoxa ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu kusebenza nasenkundleni yephondo, amazwe amaninzi anezokhuselo ezifakelweyo kumlinganiselo omkhulu ngaphantsi komgaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo yawo. Noko ke, izenzo zodidi enkundleni yephondo zingaphakamisa eminye imiqobo enxulumene nokumiswa kwemithetho, efana nemilinganiselo engafaniyo ye-creding okanye imida yokususa kwinkundla yesizwe.

Uphuhliso Lwangoku Neenkcubeko Zexesha Elizayo

INkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka icoca imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzikhuseleni, kunye neziphumo zezenzo zodidi lwamalungelo abantu. Torres v. Isebe leTexas loKhuseleko loLuntu, 597 U.S._2022), iNkundla yabambelela kwelokuba iTexas iluthenge ukukhusela kwayo ngokumkela imali yesizwe phantsi kweSebe leMsebenzi yeSebe eliLawulweni neRescrectmentment Rights Act (USSRA). Ukuqiqaqali---ukuthi ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwiinkqubo zikarhulumente kumisela imvume entsha yemisebenzi yeklasi phantsi komthetho onika intlawulo, kunika imvume ecacileyo yokuba i-mali esebenzayo.

Allen v. Cooper, 589 U.S. __20), iNkundla yabetha iLeta yoKhuseleko loMqulu Lokhuseleko lokhuseleko lukarhulumente, iqinisekisa ibhatbha ephezulu yecandelo 5. Imithetho esemthethweni. Kumthetho wamalungelo abantu njengabemi baseMerika abanobunzima (ADA), iNkantolo ekwi [[FLT:] [FLT] [2001] uMthetho wokukhusela i-ISihlomelo (impangelo) awuwuvumeli ngokusemthethweni ukhuseleko lwemeko lwezomthetho, ngoxa iSihlomelo II (inkonzo yasekuhlaleni) sisombulukelwe ngokupheleleyo. [[FLT] United States][5]

Xa bekhangela phambili, oogqirha benkqubo yeklasi kufuneka bajonge imithetho emitsha okanye ukulungisa imithetho ekhoyo yamalungelo abantu ebangela ukuthintelwa okucacileyo kwemeko karhulumente. Icebiso elithi “Kumthetho woluntu” kunye nezinye iinguqu zamalungelo okuvota, ukuba zimisiwe, zingaquka amalungiselelo okucombulula. Ngaphezu koko, ukuqwalaselwa okukhulayo kocalulo lwezakhiwo (umz., kumthetho, kwimfundo kawonke-wonke, kunye nowezonyango) kungakhuthaza iinkundla ukuba ziphinde ziphinde ziwakhelele umlinganiselo we-[ Exe Young ukwenzela unyango oluntsonkothile olufuna ukuqwalaselwa okuqhubekayo.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwezoburhulumente luhlala lusoyikeka, kodwa lungenako ukuthintelwa, kwisenzo sodidi lwamalungelo abantu. Ukhuselo lweAleminth Lomthambeko lubonakalisa amaxabiso anzulu omgaqo-siseko woburhulumente, ukanti kufuneka lunikezele xa amazwe echaphaza umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Ngokusebenzisa ngenyameko ulwahlulo oluncinci imfundiso, ukujoliseka kwamagosa karhulumente, ukujongwa kwemiqathango yemithetho ephantsi, kunye nohlalutyo olungqongqo lwe-accompumentalbust kunye ne-raverave, ama-staffs angafumana ukuguqula intlalo kwiiklati ezingeni ezichaphazelekileyo. Noko ke, indlela yokulungisa isoloko ifuna amanye amathuba akhuselweyo, afunekayo amaqela eenkundle okanye abekwe yinkundla yenkundla. Njengoko iNkundla engombrupt iyaqhubeka ukubumba yemiqatha, kufuneka imisele ye-ogravity, i-egracreyle i-eggggra

Xa ufunda ngokubhekele phaya, jonga kwi [[FLT: 0] Iqumrhu Lolwazi Lomthetho ushwankathelo lwemfundiso yezokhuselo , umbhalo opheleleyo we [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[4] Isisombululo secala] , kunye nemeko yophawu [FLT]]][FLT]][12]][FLT:[5][10]][12][12]