Ingcamango yokwahlulwa kwamagunya imele njengenye yezona ntsika zesakhiwo zihlala zihleli zorhulumente wase-United States, ezenziwe ngocoselelo ziiNtloko eziFunyelelwayo ukukhusela inkululeko. Le nkqubo yahlula-hlula igunya likarhulumente ngokwee-ofisi zamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo, iqinisekisa ukuba akukho lungu linamandla okusebenzisa imisebenzi engundoqo yelinye. Kubafundisi nabafundi ngokufanayo, ukuqonda lo mbono kubalulekile ekubambeni iziseko zedemokhrasi yaseMelika kunye nomthetho-siseko oqhubekayo.

Imvelaphi EngooFilosofi: Abaqiqeki Abakhanyiselweyo Namava Obuthanga

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akuzange kuvele kwi-atmosfera. Kwaphenjelelwa kakhulu zintanda-bulumko zezobupolitika zeNjikelezo, ngokungakumbi i-Frentshi Baron de Montesquieu, osebenza ngo1748 [uMoya woMthetho waphikisa ukuba inkululeko igcinwe kakuhle xa amandla karhulumente ahlulwe phakathi kwamasebe ahlukeneyo. Abaseki boMbutho, bafunda ngokunzulu kule mibhalo, babesoyika ukuxinzelelwa kwamandla akhokelela ekusebenziseni igunya phantsi kolawulo lweBritane. Amava ethanga phantsi kolawulo oluphezulu, apho umlawuli, umbango, kunye nemisebenzi yogwebo ngokufuthi iqinisa imfuneko yokuqhekeka kwemixokelelwa.

Umontesquieu

UMontesquieu wachaza iindidi ezintathu zamandla karhulumente: umthetho, umphathi, kunye nezomthetho. Wanyanzelisa ukuba xa ezimbini okanye ngaphezulu kula magunya edityanisiwe kumntu omnye okanye umzimba omnye, inkululeko iyalahleka. Iingcamango zakhe zazisasazwa ngokubanzi phakathi kwabaseki baseMelika, ababesoloko bemcaphula kwiPhondo yoLuhlu. UJames Madison, ngokukodwa, wadwelisa kakhulu kwiMontesquieu xa wayeyila isiseko somgaqo-siseko, echaza ukuba “ukuhlanganiswa kwawo onke amandla, uwino-mthetho, isigqeba, isigqeba, kunye ne-judiary, ezandleni ezifanayo... ngokufanelekileyo zingachazwa kanye ingcaciso yegunya.[FLD] [1]

Ukusilela Kwemiqathango Yomanyano

Phambi komGaqo-siseko, iZihlolo zoMgaqo-siseko zadala urhulumente obuthathaka ophakathi ongenagunya eliphezulu okanye ijaji elahlukileyo. Olu vavanyo lwangqina intlekele: IBhunga alikwazanga ukunyanzelisa imithetho, ukulawula ezorhwebo, okanye ukunyusa iirhafu ngokuphumelelayo. Indibano yeGaphis-vukelo ngo1786-1787 yabonisa ukungavisisani okubangelwa kukungabikho kwamagunya anamandla, ahlukeneyo. Esi sizukulwana sisunguli safunda ukuba inkululeko ayifuni kuphela imida enegunya kodwa kwanokwakhiwa okuqinileyo okuvumela isebe ngalinye ukuba lisebenze ngokwalo kodwa ngokuxhomekeke kwimithetho. Indibano yeFiladelfiya yowe-1787 yayaphiya yayanywa ngokukhethekile ukuphendula ezi ngxaki.

Amasebe Amathathu: Ukwahlulwa Okungagqibeleliyo

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., wagunyaziswa ngo-1788, wasekwa amasebe amathathu karhulumente alinganayo. Ngamnye wanikwa iimbopheleleko ezahlukeneyo kunye nezindlela zokuxhathisa ukungenelela kwamanye. Olu lwahlulo lwalungengomkhethe; lwabonisa ukusetyenziswa kobuchule ngendalo yomntu nemfuneko yokufuna ukulwa namabhongo.

IGatya leSebe loMthendeleko (INkqutyana I) inomthwalo wokwenza imithetho. Iquka iBhoomral Congress: Indlu yabameli, enamalungu anyulwa ngqo ngabantu qho kwiminyaka emibini, kunye neBhunga leBhunga, ekuqaleni likhethwe ziindlu zikarhulumente kodwa ngoku ngqo linyulwe. Isakhiwo se-bidameral ngokwaso simela ukwahlukana okuthe chanda, iNdlundlo yendlu ye-booplustra ilungelelaniswe ngabancinane, abakhuphi na-mthetho wesigqengqeshi. Isebe lemithetho libamba amandla esipakethi semali, livakalisa imfazwe, kwaye liqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli.

Isebe elinoLawulo oluPhezulu (Artle II) linyanzelisa imithetho kwaye likhokelwa nguMongameli. Abalawuli baphikisana ukuba ngaba umphathi onegunya ufanele abe ngumntu omnye okanye ibhunga, ekugqibeleni agqibe kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuqinisekisa amandla nokuphendula. UMongameli usebenza njengoMphathi-Mphathi-iChief, iqhuba inkqubo yangaphandle, kwaye angawubeka umthetho. Noko ke, amandla okumisa nokwenza isivumelwano kufuneka iNdlungela, ukukhangela umsebenzi wesigqeba.

Isebe lezeejaji (Artle III) ichaza imithetho kwaye ineenkundla zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente. Amafreyimene aseka ijaji ezimeleyo kunye nobomi obuninzi (iphantsi kokuziphatha okuhle) ukukhusela abagwebi kwingcinezelo yezopolitiko. IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall kamva waqinisa amandla okuhlola ityala kwi- Marbury v. Madison [183]), evumela iinkundla ukuba zibethe imithetho echasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli sebe lesithathu lisebenza njengesixhobo esipheleleyo sokuhlola intsingiselo yemithetho.

Iingqiniba Nolungelelwano: Umgaqo - siseko Wolawulo Lobabini

Ulwahlulo lwamagunya kuphela lwalunganele; abasebenzi bolwahlulo bongeza inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano ukwenzela ukuba isebe ngalinye likwazi ukuxhathisa ukuphambana kwezinye. Njengoko uMadison wacacisa kuFederalist No. 51, “Iluvo kufuneka lenziwe ukulwa namabhongo.” Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba ngoxa amagunya ahlukene, akwadityaniswa ngeendlela ezithintela ulawulo.

Imizekelo Engundoqo Yokuxilonga Nokulungelelana

  • [[NTL:0] Ingqikelelo-mali kwisebe eliphetheyo: Congress ingayigqitha iveto yomongameli kunye nesithathu soninzi lwamagumbi omabini. Ingamququzeli kwaye isuse uMongameli ngenxa “yolwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu kunye nabasebenzi abangalunganga,” kwaye ilawula ukuxhasa ngemali kwinkqubo yokudityaniswa.
  • [[NTL: 0] Iziphumo Zokukhangela eMthethweni: UMongameli angarhoxa nawuphi na umthetho odluliswa yiKhompathimente, nangona iveto inokuba ne-pane. UMongameli ukwanamandla okuqulunqa iiKhomishini kwiintlanganiso ezikhethekileyo kwaye angakhupha imiyalelo yegunya elithwele umkhosi womthetho kwimida ethile.
  • [[NKQUBO:0] IJodicial Vacks Zombini: INkundla ePhakamileyo ingavakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingekho semthethweni ngokuhlola okusemthethweni. Noko ke, abagwebi batyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, benika amanye amasebe amandla phezu kokwenziwa kwejaji.
  • Ingcebiso ze-ligislative Iingqi kwiSiqendu: i-Congress ingangagqeba kwaye isuse abagwebi besizwe, itshintshe inani lamatyala kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, kwaye icebise ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko ukuphelisa izigqibo zenkundla.

La magunya angenanayo adala ulungelelwano olunamandla oluye lwavela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Ngokomzekelo, amandla eNdlu yeeNtsimbi yeQela amacebiso nokuvuma ukuchotshelwa kwemithetho kuye kwaba sisixhobo esiphambili kwingxabano elwayo elwayo, esibalaselisa indlela uphando nolungelelwano olusesona siphambili ngayo ekulawuleni namhlanje.

Iinjongo Neengxoxo Zootata

OoTata Abasunguliweyo babenombono karhulumente okhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ngokuthintela ukunyuka kolawulo lobuzwilakhe. Iinjongo zabo zazingekokuyila ulawulo olusebenzayo kuphela kodwa yayikukudala inkqubo enokuqhelanisa nokutshintsha amaxesha ngelinye ixesha igcina imigaqo engundoqo. Iingxoxo kwiNdibano yezomGaqo-siseko zityhila ukungavisisani okunzulu ngokulungelelana okuthe ngqo kwamandla, ingakumbi phakathi kwamaFederali kunye namaAnti-Fedalist.

Iphepha Loluhlu Lolawulo Nempembelelo Yokwahlukana

UAlexander Hamilton, James Madison, noJohn Jay babhalela iMapa eFederalist Papers ukuphembelela ama-New York ukuba axhase umGaqo-siseko. No. 47, ebhalwe nguMadison, ikhusela ngqo ukwahlulwa kwamagunya njengeyona ibalulekileyo kwinkululeko. Umlawuli weFederal No. 48 ulumkisa ngokuchasene “nendlela yokusebenzisa i-levastivation vortex” — utyekelo lwesebe lowiso-mthetho lokufumana amandla ogunyaziweyo — kwaye ichaza isizathu sokuba ulwahlulo nje lwephepha lwanele ngaphandle kokuhlola isakhiwo. Umbalelwanonono. U- 51 uluthi oluqhelekileyo lweziqinisekiso kunye nolungelelaniso, uphikisa ukuba“ ukusetyenziswa ngokwahlukene kwamandla karhulumente ohlukeneyo... kuyimfuneko ekulondolo lwenkululeko.[FL:0][FF:1]

Inkxalabo Ezichasene Ne-Federalist

Abahlalutyi abanjengoBrutus (mhlawumbi uRobert Yates) baphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko awuzange uhambe ngokwaneleyo kumagunya okwahlula abantu nokuba urhulumente omtsha uyakuba namandla kakhulu, ingakumbi urhulumente onegunya kunye nogwebo. Babesoyika urhulumente oqinileyo oza kutshabalalisa ulawulo lukarhulumente. IBhili yamaLungelo, ingakumbi uMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesiBhalo, yongezwa ukuxubusha ngenye yezi zinto ngokubekela amagunya kumazwe nabantu. Lo ngxaki phakathi kwamandla orhulumente nolawulo ihlala ingumba ongundoqo kwingxoxo yokwahlula-magunya.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya Kwixesha Lanamhlanje

Umgaqo wokwahlula amagunya uyaqhubeka ubumba ulawulo lwamaMelika kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesihlanu. Ngexa isakhiwo esisisiseko sihlala siqinile, kuvele iingxaki ezintsha ezivavanya imida phakathi kwamasebe. Ukuqonda ezingxaki kubalulekile ukuze kuqwalaselwe indlela umbono wokuqala osebenza ngayo namhlanje.

ITheyibhile yesiGqeba esiPhezulu kunye noLawulo lweQumrhu

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, abanye oomongameli baye baphuhlisa ingcamango “yobungangamsha obulawulayo”, bephikisa ngelithi uMongameli ulawula ngokupheleleyo isebe eliphetheyo kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayinakulimisela igunya ngoorhulumente abazimeleyo okanye imiqathango yokususwa. Le ngcamango iye yasetyenziswa ukuthethelela imiyalelo yezolawulo oluphezulu, imisebenzi yezomkhosi ngaphandle kwemvume yesivumelwano, kunye nokutyhola okubanzi kwelungelo lokulawula. Abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi inkcaza le nkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela. Inkundla ephakamileyo ithetha ngezi meko ezinje kwiimeko ezifana [[FTLT: 0] i-MFLT], i-Stown sh & Tube. v.[FLT.FFURM] [20], iregment.[20]

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwesigwebo Nemida Yaso

Amandla okuhlola ityala akhula kakhulu ukususela kuMarbury v. Madison. Inkundla Ephakamileyo ngoku isoloko igqiba ngokubekwa ityala lezopolitiko, ukusuka kumalungelo okukhupha isisu kwizemali yezemali. Ingxoxo engaphaya “isenzo sobujaji” ngokuphikisanayo no“ukuzibamba-mthetho” kubonisa ukungavisisani okuqhubekayo ngendima efanelekileyo yejaji. Izigqibo ezifana Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yezemfundo yezemfundo [1954])] kunye [FLT] kunye [FLT:] kunye [FLT] ne-bbergefel. Hod [FLT] [FLD] [5] [2011] ibonisa indlela iinkundla zenkundla zezomthetho, kodwa abagxeki abathiweyo baphikisa ngayo ukunyanisa iinjongo zemithetho.

I-Gridlock ePhakamileyo kunye noLawulo

Isiphumo esingacwangciswanga sokwahlulwa kwamagunya kunokwenzeka kokwahlulwa kweqhina elitsha xa amasebe ahlukeneyo elawulwa ngamaqela aphikisanayo. I-monilbuster kwindlu yemibutho, ekuqaleni isixhobo sokuthetha ngengxoxo ebanzi, iye yaba sisixhobo sokuthintela umthetho. Oomongameli baye baphethukela kwimiyalelo yegunya kunye nezenzo zolawulo zokungasebenzi, nto leyo ngokulandelayo ebangela ukuba kubekho imingeni enzima yokulungisa. Lo mjikelo uphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngabakhi bobume be-framente banokusebenza ngokunempumelelo kusini na kwimekobume egabadeleyo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo yayibomqumka ngabomzo wokuthintela utshintsho olukhawulezileyo, ngoxa abanye bebiza utshintsho ukuze balungise ulungelelo.

Oorhulumente Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akupheleliselwanga kumgangatho karhulumente; nawuphi na umgaqo-siseko wezwe ukwahlula igunya likarhulumente phakathi kwegunya eliphetheyo, lowiso-mthetho, kunye namasebe eejaji. Noko ke, amatyala ahluka kakhulu ngendlela akwane ngayo ngokungqongqo oku kunyanzelisa. Amanye amazwe, njengeNebraska, anendlu yowiso-mthetho engathanga mbombo. Amanye avumela abalawuli ukuba bafake izinto nganye kwimiqathango ekwizigwebo zomthetho ngamnye — amandla a uMongameli wezwe akanawo amagunya. Amazwe amaninzi akwanyule amaziko arhobo, abangela amandla awahlukileyo ekumiselweni kwemiqathango yobomi bolawulo. U. Umgaqo-mthetho wongeza omnye umaleko onzima: umgaqo-siseko wokwahlula amagunya athe nkqo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente, ukongeza kulwahlulo oluthe tyaba kumgangatho ngamnye.

Impembelelo Yazwenibanzi Yomzekelo WaseMerika

Inkqubo yaseMerika yokwahlula amagunya iye yasebenza njengesikhokelo kwidemokhrasi ezininzi ehlabathini lonke. Amazwe anjenge-Brazil, i-Mexico, i-Nigeria, kunye ne-South Africa amkele iinkqubo zokuhamba ngenqanawa eziphenjelelwa ngumGaqo-siseko wase-U. Noko ke, ambalwa aye aphinda-phinda uvavanyo oluchanileyo nolungelelwano olukhoyo ngenxa yokwahluka kwenkcubeko nembali. Iinkqubo zePalamente, umzekelo, ukudibanisa amandla olawulo lweziquququ nomthetho womthetho ngokwahlukileyo. Isibheno esihlala sigxininiswa kwinkululeko yalo ngokwahlulwa, kanye njengokuba uhlanga ngalunye luyivumelanisa neemeko zomGaqo-siseko wezizwe ngezizwe. Iintelekiso zelizwe zidla ngokucaphula imiqathango yenkcatho-wa yamandla.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla: Ukunikela Isizukulwana Esilandelayo

Abafundisi banembopheleleko ebalulekileyo ekudluliseleni intsingiselo yokwahlulwa kwamagunya kubafundi. Le ngcamango inokuba luncedo, isebenzisana kwaye isebenzise ingqiqo. Ngokwenza izinto zibonakale, abafundisi- ntsapho banokukhuthaza uxabiso olunzulu ngegunya lomgaqo-siseko baze bakhuthaze ubumi obukhutheleyo.

Izicwangciso Ezinempumelelo Zegumbi Leklasi

  • Izingqinisiso kunye neNxushunxulumano ye-Mock: hlela intlanganiso yemithetho yenkohliso apho abafundi kufuneka badlulise umthetho, baze babe ne-“denti".
  • Umthombo wohlalutyo: Sebenzisa izicatshulwa ezisuka kumaPhepha oLuntu, ingakumbi eNkundleni. 47, 48, kunye no 51, kwaye yenza abafundi badlale impikiswano kaMadison kwimo-mongo yangoku. Ugcino-lwazi lweSizwe lunika iintlobo ezifikelelekayo zamaxwebhu.
  • Ufundo lwezomGaqo-siseko Criss: Hlola iziganeko zembali ezinjengehlazo lamanzi, ukunyanzeliswa koMongameli uBill Clinton, okanye indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunyulo lomongameli wama 2000. Le mizekelo yehlabathi yokwenyani ibonisa indlela esebenza nokulungelelaniswa ngayo kumaxesha oxinzelelo.
  • URhulumente woMgaqo-nkqubo woMgaqo-nkqubo: Thelekisa inkqubo yase-U.S. kunye neenkqubo zepalamente (umz., iUnited Kingdom) ukugxininisa ukwahluka kwamandla awohlukeneyo. Abafundi bangaxubusha ngeengenelo nangezincedi.
  • Uhlalutyo lwezehlo zangoku: Lukhuthaza abafundi ukufumana amanqaku eendaba amalunga nemiyalelo yegunya, imigaqo yomthetho, okanye imimiselo yowiso-mthetho, kwaye luchaza amasebe abandakanyekileyo. Olu qheliso ludibanisa ukufunda egumbini lesikolo kubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Ootitshala banokusebenzisa izixhobo ze - Internet ezisebenzisanayo njengethala leencwadi leengqungquthela okanye ii - iCicops ukuze babethelele izifundo.

Isiphelo

Umbono ofunyenweyo kaTata wokwahlula amagunya uselilungu lolawulo lwamaMelika, njengoko kuyimfuneko namhlanje njengangowewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anesibhozo. Iingcambu zayo zentanda-bulumko kwingcamango yokukhanyiselwa, ukwenziwa kwayo kumasebe amathathu omGaqo-siseko, kunye nokuqiniswa kwayo ngovavanyo kunye nolwahlulo kubangele inkqubo emelanayo nenkululeko. Ngoxa ucelomngeni lwangoku — ingxubevange yezomthetho, i-gractack lomthetho, i-gqwesileyo ephezulu — ivavanya imida yayo, umgaqo uyaqhubeka njengekhuselwa ekuxhaseni ingcinezelo. Kubaqeqeshi, le ngcamango ifundisa ngezixhobo ezinamandla nezixhobo ezintsha iqinisekisa ukuba imicimbi yabo ayiqondi nje kuphela indlela esebenzayo kodwa kwanesizathu sokuba imicimbi. Njengoko uhlanga lubhebhenela, ukwahlulwa kwamagunya omthetho ekwayo njengendawo yokuqalisa ubulumko neprojectal aqhubeka ukuze akhusele bonke abemi.

[[UMTL: 0][FLT]1 James Madison, Federal List No. 47 (1788). Umbhalo opheleleyo ukhona kwi [[FLT: 3] Iprojekthi yeSikolo seSlat soMthetho[[FLT:]].

[[UMTLL: 0]2 James Madison, Federal List No. 51 (1788). Jonga [[FLT: 3]] IKoreshi. ulawulo lwemali[.

[FLT]3 Kuhlalutyo lothelekiso, bona Iprojekthi yeCultstutine[ ukusuka kwiYunivesithi yase Texas e Austin.