I-politiki ekwisininzi ingumgaqo osisiseko kumaphondo amaninzi ehlabathi antsonkothileyo. Ichaza inkqubo yezobupolitika apho amaqela amaninzi, izilangazelelo, kunye neembono zidibanisa khona kwaye zisebenzisana phakathi kwesiseko sombutho. Kwintlalo-ninzi-yantlukwano--apho abemi bahlukana khona kulwimi, unqulo, ubuhlanga, okanye inkcubeko. Imo-mathetho-yo iyaba yimfuneko kakhulu kunentsingiselo ecacileyo; iba yimfuno esebenzayo ekulawuleni. Ngokuvumela amaqela ahlukeneyo angenelela inkqubo yomgaqo, ubupolitiki obuninzi buye baguqula indlela indlela yokulawula iiyantlukwano, ingxabano, nokugcina imigaqo-mviswano. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa ukutshintsha okuzinkcingela ubuninzi, iindlela zayo, inzuzo kunye nocelomngeni lwawo lwezintluvo, nendlela amazwe amaninzi asebenzisa ngayo ulawulo kwizenzo ezininzi.

Isiseko Sobupolitika

I-bitism yale mihla yezobupolitika isuka ngamandla kwimisebenzi yeengcali ezayicel ’ umngeni ingcamango yolawulo-wonke. Ekuqaleni kweye-20-century i-argeims afana noHarold Laski no G.D.H.Cole waphikisa ukuba ibutho labantu lenziwe ngamaqumrhu angenazintlola---------ezoqoqosho, engokonqulo, nezithethe-ezineenye ezisemthethweni. Lo mquququzelelo wokucinga kamva wafundiswa ngezifundo zedemokhrasi. Ingcamango yepollary Dah ichaza ulawulo-demokhrasi njengenkqubo apho amaqela amaninzi amancinane anokuthetha okanye aphembelela okanye izigqibo, uthinte nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphina inko ekhoyo kwimikhosi ephakathi yezizwe, apho i-ognown edla ngokuba noloyiko lwamazwe aphakathi.

Amandla e-consocationalism kaLijphart [1969]) ahambela phambili ngokumisela izicwangciso ezithile zolawulo kwimibutho eyahlulelene kakhulu. Lijphart waphikisa ngelithi kwimimandla emininzi . apho ii-cleavages zisebenza ngokunzulu kwaye zinqumla ulawulo lwedemokhrasi lubuthathaka, i-demokhrasi ifuna izinto ezine: iikhabhinthi, i-veto magunya amakhulu angaphezulu kwezilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo, umelo olungundoqo kwimibutho engundoqo, kunye necandelo (ngokufuthi nge-cestern okanye ngokwenkcubeko). Ezi ngcamango ziphembelela ngokuthe ngqo umgaqo-siseko samazwe afana neBelgium, i-Bosnia, kunye ne-Hergonvon. Uncwadi lwemfundo oluthetha ngemfazwe yohlanga kunye namandla amaqela ayaqhubeka ukuphikisana nokuba ngabandakana kwemiqatha okanye inkxdiactivementmentmentation (ementinginginginginginginginginginging procectionation) ekhuthaza ukukhuthaza ngolu

Ubuchule bolawulo lwezibonelelo

Amalizwe athetha ngemininzi awuguqulela njani umgaqo ocacileyo wokuthomalalisa iinguqu zoluntu ukuba ube ngumlawuli wemihla ngemihla?

Umanyano nohliso-mthetho

Iinkqubo zomanyano zivumela amaqela eentlanga okanye eelwimi ajolise iliso kwimimandla ethile ukuze asebenzise inkululeko ebanzi kwimfundo, inkqubo yolwimi, ipolisi, kunye nemicimbi yenkcubeko. Ngokomzekelo, ii-canton ezingama-26 zaseSwitzerland, zibonakalisa uluntu lwelizwe lwaseJamani, isiFrentshi, isiTaliyane, neRomansh. I-canton (futhi kwanoomasipala) bamisela imida yayo esemthethweni (iiii-s) kwaye baqhuba izifundo zemfundo zasekuhlaleni. Oku kunciphisa isisongelo esithelekelelayo sokulawulwa liqela elinye labantu kwaye kunika uluntu ngalinye indawo ekhuselekileyo. Nangona kusemthethweni, i-Indiya, i-Indiyayiquququzelela imigaqo-mthetho ebanzi, inika i-Rogalelo-morediodings (iiiisy) kumazwe amaninzi; ukuquququququzelela kwemidaba yolwimi kumazwe owe-1950 kunye no 1960) kumthetho woomatidio-midio.

Umelo olufuna inkcazelo

Iinkqubo ze-Electoral ezisebenzisa umelo lolwahlulo (PR) zityekele ekuvezeni iindlu zowiso-mthetho ezibonisa iingxube zamaqela esizwe, onqulo, okanye iingcamango ezahlukahlukeneyo zabemi. I-PR esekelwe kuludwe, njengoko isetyenziswa kunyulo lwasemva kwe-aparatid yaseMzantsi Afrika, inceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba i-Afrikaan National Congress (ANC) ayizange ishiya amaqela amancinane ngokupheleleyo, lo gama inika ilizwi kumaqela amancinane esizwe, amaqela anomdla. Iinkqubo zolwahlulo (njengeJamani) zivumela umelo oluncinane ngokudibanisa izihlalo zoluhlu lwengingqi. Noko ke, uPR unakho ukwahlula inkqubo yeqela, lorhwebo-off i-off i-procediancelties kufuneka ilawule.

Amalungiselelo aqhuba amandla

Ngapha koko, urhulumente nePR, amazwe amaninzi amkela ii-parimethi ezicacileyo zamandla axhasa izivumelwano. Ezi zinokuthatha uhlobo loorhulumente abanyanzelisayo, isiqinisekiso sobulungiseleli beqela elithile lohlanga, okanye amalungelo omthetho achaphazela ubuzwe. Umzekelo, amatyala asemva kweMalaysia athelekisa ushishino phakathi kweMalay, amaTshayina, namaIndiya, `emboudal kumanyano lwamaBarisan Nasia/enserts into yokuba uqoqosholo olungundoqo, imfundo, kunye nemigaqo yonqulo ayinakutshintshwa ngaphandle kwemvume ebanzi yobuhlanga. Ngoxa ukungafezeki nokugxekwa, amalungiselelo anjalo aye alungiselelwe amashumi eminyaka ozinziwo.

Iingenelo Zobupolitika Kumazwe Ahlukahlukeneyo

Xa ichazwa kakuhle, ulawulo oluninzi lunika iingenelo ezininzi ezibonakalayo.

Umelo olwandisiweyo

Iinkqubo zoluhlu lweziqendu ziqinisekisa ukuba ulwahlulo olupheleleyo lwesizwe, lweelwimi, kunye nenkcubeko yenkcubeko lukhoyo kwimizimba eyenza izigqibo. Inkqubo ye-Indiya yeSicwangciso esigodliweyo, iShedydyd Covoltion, kunye nezinye iiklasi ze-Frademics iqinisekisa ukuba amaqela angenayo ngokwembali embalini anezihlalo kwindlu yowiso-mthetho kunye nendlu yowiso-mthetho. Nangona kuthandabuza, eli cebo liye landisa ukubonakala kunye nempembelelo kuluntu olucekelwe phantsi komgangatho ophezulu. Ngokufanayo, iMāori Refectori, inika uMāi Revodioti isalatioti imeloti yomelo lomelo lwepalamente ngokuba nenkqubo evumela ukuba luvote kwindlu-volonke.

Ukuncitshiswa Kwengxabano Ngokuncitshiswa

Ngokunyanzela amaqela aphikisanayo ukuba athethe phakathi kwamaziko kunokuba alwe ezitratweni, amajelo ezobupolitika akwizitrato angqubana ngendlela ecacileyo, eyoxolo. “umlingo” waseSwitzerland weBhunga loManyeneyo (umbutho omkhulu wamaqela amakhulu) uqinisekisa ukuba nasemva konyulo olunempikiswano, amaqela amakhulu eelwimi kunye nemimandla akhoyo ngokulinganayo kumphathi-mikhosi. Eli lungiselelo liye lanegalelo kwingxelo ebalaseleyo yoxolo lwasekhaya eSwitzerland nangona ibutho leelwimi ezininzi kunye neqaqobana elikhulayo lamaSilamsi.

Iziphumo eziqulunqweyo zoMgaqo-nkqubo

Xa amaqela amaninzi ethatha inxaxheba kulwakhiwo lwenkqubo, iziphumo zemithetho zidla ngokuhlalisa uludwe olubanzi lweemfuno. Umzekelo, inkqubo yeKhanada yezithethe ngezithethe, eququzelelwe kunyaka ka 1988 . Ivela kumthetho we-Multicalculturalisms [, ukusuka kumashumi eminyaka e-indawo edistatical ethetha phakathi kwesiNgesi, isiFrentshi, kunye ne-Irandicals imveliso etheza kakuhle kunye namaza elandelelanayo eentlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo. Inkqubo ikhusela indlela yesithethe ngexesha lomntu elinganayo. Ngokufanayo, imithetho entsokothayo yolwimi lwaseBelgium kwilizwe lokuthetha isiDatshishish, ukuphendulana, kunye nemimandla yeJamani ehamba kunye neendawo ezitheneyo ezidityayo, ivumela ulawulo lwentlalo-mibazwe ngalinye loluntu ngexesha lobuzwe loluntu xa luqhubeka.

Ukungagungqi Kwezobupolitika

Ngokwahlukileyo kuloyiko lokuba umahluko wolawulo-lwazi lwedemokhrasi, ubuGawulayo obusetyenziswa ngokubanzi bungaqinisa uzinzo. Isitshixo bubukho beminqamlezo enqamlezayo kunye nezizathu ezisisiseko zentsebenziswano. KuMzantsi Afrika, umgaqo-siseko wasemva konyaka-19994 waseka inkqubo yokukhetha ngokulandelelana, urhulumente womanyano lwesizwe ngexesha lotshintsho, kunye neNkundla eyomeleleyo yomGaqo-siseko. Nangona uqoqo wamazwe ephezulu woqoqosho kunye nolwahlulo olunzulu, ilizwe liye laphepha iimfazwe zamakhaya eziye zabangela ukwahlukana okukhulu. Uzinzo loMzantsi Afrika, nangona lungathandeki, lufanele luchaphazele kucwangciso lwalo lwalo lwezo zonke iziko.

Ucelomngeni Lonqulo Lwezobupolitika

Phezu kwalo nje idinga layo, ulawulo lwezininzi lujongene nemiqobo enzulu kumaphondo amaninzi. Ukuvuma ezi ngxaki kubalulekile ukuze kwenziwe inkqubo esengqiqweni.

Ukwahlukahlukana Kwezobupolitika Nokungaguquguquki Koluntu

Kwale misebenzi inye eyenza ukuba kubekho umelo oluneenkqubo ezizizodwa kunye nomelo olulungelelanisiweyo,----actanul-accel ivelisa iindlu zowiso-mthetho ezimanyeneyo. Xa kungekho qela linye liyalela uninzi, oorhulumente abamanyeneyo kufuneka benziwe, kwaye ezi zinokungaguquguquki, ingakumbi xa amaqela efumana inkxaso evela kumaqela eentlanga ezahlukeneyo okanye onqulo amaqela abalulekileyo eenkqubo engundoqo. Amava akwaSirayeli anika umzekelo wesilumkiso: ukudityaniswa komfanekiso olusezantsi, umqobo onyusiweyo, kunye nomgangatho osezantsi wentlalo-ntle, kunye nomgangatho ophantsi ophantsi wentlalo (iiii-Arabhu, ii-Arabhu, ii-abhum, ii-abhuluya, iinkonzo ezikhoyo ngokweentlobo-entlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo-zombini ezikhoyo, kodwa anokuthi athotyelele unyuke unyuke unyuse unyusombululo olufutshane, imibutho emibalwayokubediyokube kwi

Utshixo lwe Grid-elimiweyo

Xa amaqela amaninzi ebambe amandla, ukwenza izigqibo kusenokuba yi-ethe cooked system-okanye imisa ngokupheleleyo. IBelgium igcina ingxelo yehlabathi ingekho ngqiqweni epheleleyo yorhulumente (ngonyaka wama-589). Ngelo xesha, urhulumente wangaphambili wahlala kumgangatho womphathi, kodwa utshintsho olukhulu lwesakhiwo, ingakumbi kwinkqubo yezoqoqosho kunye nemali karhulumente, luye lwalibaziseka ngokupheleleyo. I-Rhavithi ye-grid iye yachaphazela iBosnia kunye ne-Herzegovina, apho i-trankitete devizermate ye-joit nevetoes zamaqela esizwe (Bosniks, i-Serveats, iCroats) isoloko ihamba imo. I-Grick ayinqandwanga, kodwa ifuna ixesha elinamandla, ixesha, imidayo eqinileyokwaneyo, kunye nengcali yemibutho yemibutho elibalulekileyo.

Iipolitiki Zobuhlanga Nengozi Yokuphelisa

Kumaphondo ahlukahlukeneyo, oosomashishini bezobupolitika badla ngokubhenela kukunyaniseka kobuhlanga kunokuba banqumle imiba. Oku kungakhokelela “kukwahlulwa kohlanga,” apho oopolitiki abakhuphisanayo beqela elinye lohlanga bazama ukubonakala bezinikele kakhulu kwimfuno zamaqela kunamaqela abo, ukuphembelela intetho yezopolitiko kunye nokungquzulana okuqhubekayo. Lo mgaqo ubhaliwe kwiSing Lanka’s Sinhalese-Tamil-umail, umkhosi waseKenya iKenya, kunye neenkqubo ze-Nigeria ezisekelwe kwiqela elinye. I-outristrists ijongelas ijonge intelo entle ye-edia kuba isenza kubonakale ngathi iyawaphula. Iinkqubo ze-Inquisition ziquka ukufuna amaqela ezobupolitika ukuba abe ngamalungu amaqela ahlukeneyo kunye noomatili (njengoomatila eNigeria) okanye ukwamkela iinkqubo zobugropu ekhuthaza ukuvota iinjongo zokhetho zezizwe ezisetyenziswa emva komthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-1997.

Ulungiso lomda omncinane Nangona kuboniswe

Kwanakwiinkqubo ezenziwe ngokucacileyo ukuze zifakelwe, amanye amaqela anokuhlala ephangalele. Ubukho babameli abambalwa abasuka kuluntu oluncinane bungaguquleli kwimpembelelo encinci ekwinkqubo. Umzekelo, eIndiya, ngelixa iDalit ne Adivasi MP zinyusiwe, amandla abo okumisela umthetho wamalungelo omhlaba, imfundo, kwaye ukuvuma inyathelo lilinganiselwe yingqeqesho yeqela kunye nehlelo elisekelwe kwiqela. Ngokufanayo, eRwanda, imigaqo-nkqubo ecwangcisiweyo yokungena kwesizwe emva komntla wonyaka ka-19949, iye yakhuthaza umgangatho ophezulu wembutho wobuhlanga, kodwa abagxeki abagxeki abalawuli bemeko yezopoliti belizwe baphikisa ukuba ukulawulwa kobuninzi, ingakumbi kwamaHutu amaninzi. Ulawulo lobuninzi lufuna ukungachazi qhalulo nje oluchazi kodwa kwamaqela amaqela amaqela amaqela amaqela amaqela amaqela azimeleyo. Ngokunjalo, ubuchule obunye obunye obukhokhokhokhokhokhokhozi, kwaye apheka-othulelo lwezi.

Uhlolisiso Lwemeko: Izifundo Ezithelekisayo Ezivela Kumazwe Ahlukahlukeneyo

Iingenelo ezingeyonto nocelomngeni lokusebenzisa ubuninzi luba lucacile xa luhlolisiswa ngemizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene. Olu hlolisiso lulandelayo lubonisa indlela eyahlukileyo iziphumo zokhetho lwamaziko.

ESwitzerland: Ukuqhelisela iNdlela yokuzibandakanya

ISwitzerland isoloko ikhankanywa njengemodeli ye-flugings. Iilwimi zayo ezine zesizwe, iinkonzo ezininzi, kunye neempawu zengingqi ezinamandla zengingqi azizange zithintele ukulawulwa okuzinzileyo kweminyaka engaphezu kwenkulungwane. Izizathu zezokuba liququzelela. i-syssynism iyakwazi ukuphelisa inkcubeko nemfundo eninzi kwimida yama-26, engqinelana kakhulu nemithetho ye-canto ethetha ulwimi neyonqulo. IBhunga lesizwe (ukunqumla) lingumbutho omkhulu wamaqela amane amakhulu, ibekelwe izihlalo ngokwendlela ezikhoyo. idemokhrasi /idrakhrasi /isyly ithumela intellimendsmes kunye nenyathelo eliphambili lokuvala ingxube phambili. Ngeli, i-Suluki, inika amandla okuthintela izilangazelelo ezithathwini zeqela lesizwe.

EIndiya: Ukulawula iMisebenzi yePalamente yoManyano

I-Indiya ingumsebenzi omkhulu wobuhlanga, ulwimi, kunye nonqulo olungafaniyo luneengxaki ezinkulu. Eli lizwe lineelwimi ezingama-22 ezisemthethweni (zingamakhulukhulu eelwimi), iinkonzo ezininzi, kunye nenkqubo yokuzimela iindidi ezithenjiweyo. Ukususela ngowe-1947, i-Indiya iye yakwazi ukulawula ezi ntlobo ngeentlobo ngeentlobo ngomanyano lwezopolitiko. Inkqubo yesebe yaphinda yaphinda yahlelwa ngolwimi lwezimilo ngoo 1950 nangoo1960, inika amaqela amakhulu eelwimi amaqela asekuhlaleni asekuhlaleni. UMgaqo-siseko uquke inyathelo lokulawula iCastees neShedydyulies, kunye nesakhiwo sobuzwekazi esilawula zonke ngokulinganayo. Inkqubo yepalamente, kunye nemimandla yokuqala yephondo ne-omatiko amaqela eninzi e-ompomponi eninzi, ifuna ukukhokelwa ngokweentloko-ntle yezobupolitika, kodwa ukunyuka kwemibutho lezizwe e-Indiya, ifuna ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha lezizwe ebanzi, i-ondondondo ebanzi, idiyonke, idiyo yonke,

ENigeria: Umanyano Nokulungelelana Kobuhlanga Phantsi Kobunzima

I-Nigeria lilizwe elinabemi abaninzi nesinye seendawo zalo ezingafaniyo, namaqela amathathu amakhulu (Hausa-Fulani, iYoruba, i-Igbo) kunye nekhulu lemibutho emincinane. Ukususela oko iNigeria iye yazama iindlela ezahlukeneyo zolawulo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo ukuze ilawule ukhuphiswano. Umgaqo-siseko wangoku (1999) umisela inkqubo yamazwe angama-366, kunye neSizwekazi esimanyeneyo, ne-Devilemental Corimetric, kunye nonyuko olujikeleza ngokungacwangciswayo phakathi kwamaSilamsi nomntla nasezantsi kobuKristu. Umthetho wesizwe ufuna ukuba ukumiselwa kwesizwe kubonise ukwahlukahlukana kwelizwe. Noko ke, ubuninzi beNigeria buye bathotyelwa ngoqhaqhotyo, umkhosi, ungenelo lwezopoliti lwezizwe ezintathu zemali kwimali eninzi. Unyuko jikelele lwase-2023 lwaseluvolu luhlu olutsha lwe-Lab, oluced lucelela ukuba lubonise ukuba ukhuthulo lwezizwe lobuhlanga lobuhlanga, lungalungongongongongongongongongo

EKhanada: Uninzi lwezithethe kunye nomanyano

Indlela yokusebenzisa ubuninzi beKhanada idibanisa ubuGawulayo obusemthethweni, ubuGawulayo, kunye nenkqubo karhulumente ethambileyo evumela amaQuébec azimeleyo. UmGaqo-siseko wowe-1982 uquka iCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, ekhusela amalungelo amancinane olwimi kunye namalungelo esivumelwano. Québec usebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yomthetho wasekuhlaleni kwaye unegunya elikhulu kulawulo lwezimi, inkqubo yolwimi, kunye nenkcubeko. Inkundla ephakamileyo iphumele indima ebalulekileyo kwiimpikiswano zolwimi ezikhoyo kunye namalungelo abantu abambalwa abahlala kuzo, ingakumbi kumaqela ama-session (i-Secececesssss) kunye nolu macala akhoyo abantu boburhulumente boburhulumente ukuba i-ondlale ukuvota abakhoyo.

Isiphelo

Ubuninzi bezobupolitika asiyongxaki yolawulo kumaphondo amaninzi. Likrele elineziphelo ezibini elixhomekeke kwisakhiwo, linokukhuthaza uzinzo nokufakwa okanye ukudityaniswa nokungafezeki. Ubungqina obuvela e-Switzerland, e-India, eNigeria, eKhanada, kunye namanye amazwe achaza ukuba ukulawulwa kwezizwe ngeendawo ezizintlobo-ntlobo kufuna ukudityaniswa kwezakhiwo: umanyano lwesizwe okanye iyunithi ehloniphekileyo ukunika amaqela umelo lolungelelwaniso okanye enye indlela yokuqinisekisa; amalungiselelo asemthethweni amandla (amatyala amakhulu, i-vetoes, amagunya) ukuze kuqinisekiswe uluntu; kunye nee-Gadiccoties ezizimeleyo ukulungiselela i-gqweqwele.

Kubalulekile ngokufanayo ukuhambelana kwezobupolitika ezixhasa la maziko. Inkcubeko yezithethe isebenza kakuhle xa abalawuli beqonda ukuba ukusinda kweli lizwe kuxhomekeke ekuhlalisekeni kwezilangazelelo ezifanelekileyo zazo zonke amaqela, kwaye xa abemi bebona ukuba ukudibana kwabo kuhambelana neprojekthi yesizwe eyahlukeneyo. Kwinkulungwane yama-21, njengoko iinguqu zobuhlanga nonqulo ziqhubeka zisanda ngokufuduka nokutshintsha kwenani labantu, izifundo zobuninzi obulawulwa ngurhulumente wolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo-demokhrasi ezisuka kumazwe azimeleyo kuphela kodwa kwanamazwe athe azibona eqhelekile. Ucelomngeni lokuguqula iinguquko zibe yimvelaphi yamandla amaqela-orhulumente-otheralitiki kuhlala ingumnye wemibutho elilawula umhlaba wonke.