Ijaji yesahlulo senkundla yezolawulo-moya, isebenza njengenkqubo ebalulekileyo yokuxhasa umthetho nokukhusela amalungelo abantu. Iinkundla zinendima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni imithetho, ekucombululeni iingxwabangxwaba, nasekuqinisekiseni ukuba kusebenza okusesikweni. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo yenkundla ezimeleyo nesebenzayo, amalungelo abemi belizwe abanokuba sengozini yokulawulwa ngamandla angekho semthethweni, kwaye ukuzinza kwebutho labantu kuyasongelwa. Eli nqaku lihlola iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeenkundla kunye nemisebenzi yazo ecacileyo kwinkqubo yokulawula imicimbi yetyala, linika ushwankathelo olucacileyo ngendlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo ngaphaya kwemithetho eyahlukeneyo.

Ukuqonda Icudi

Ijaji yecandelo lomthetho yahlukile kwaye iyalingana isebe likarhulumente phantsi komgaqo wokwahlula amagunya. Ijongene nokutolika nokusebenzisa umthetho kwiimeko ngazinye, iqinisekisa ukuba amasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namagunya asebenza phakathi kwemida yawo engokomGaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zimiselwe kwiqela lemigangatho ukuvumela ukuhlolisiswa kwezigqibo nokuyila iqumrhu elifanayo lomthetho. Kwinkqubo ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni, ijaji yecawa yahlulwa kwiinkundla zamatyala, iinkundla zeenkundla zetyala, kunye nenkundla yenkundla yokugqibela ekhoyo (ngokufuthiwe yinkundla ephakamileyo).

Abagwebi, oomantyi, nabagwebi bangundoqo kubadlali basezinkundleni. Kufuneka bangacaluli nakuxhomekeka kwimpembelelo yangaphandle. Izigqibo zabo zisekelwe kwimimiselo, imizekelo, kunye nemigaqo-siseko. Ijaji ikwavelela ulawulo lobulungisa, kuquka ulawulo lwetyala, izabelo zabagwebi, nokunyanzeliswa kwemithetho yenkundla. Phezu kwayo nje le mimiselo, izigqibo zenkundla zivelisa imimiselo ekhokelayo, umgaqo owaziwa ngokuba yi- u-desistero yezomthetho wamakhaya. Kumazwe asekuhlaleni, iinkundla zigxininisa ngakumbi ekusebenziseni imimiselo egunyaziweyo. Phezu koko, zonke ezi nkundla zabelana iinkundla zemithetho engundoqo yokuhambisa isigwebo nemithetho esesikweni eguquguqukayo.

Iintlobo zeenkundla

Iinkundla zingahlelwa ngeendlela ezininzi: ngolawulo (ngemibandela eyintloko, ijografi, okanye imigangatho yabefundisi), ngohlobo lomthetho eziwusebenzisayo (iintlawulo zomthetho) okanye ngomsebenzi wazo (iityala..) Amacandelo alandelayo achaza iindidi ezingundoqo zeenkundla ezifumaneka kwiinkqubo ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni.

1. Iinkundla zokuvavanya

Iinkundla zetyala zingumgangatho wokuqala wenkqubo yenkundla apho amatyala eviwa khona ekuqaleni. Zinegunya lokuqala kwimicimbi emininzi yabemi neyolwaphulo-mthetho. Kwinkundla yamatyala, ijaji okanye ijaji imisa izibakala zetyala kwaye isebenzisa umthetho ofanelekileyo ukuze ifikelele kwisigqibo okanye isigwebo. Iinkundla zamatyala ngamahashe asebenza kwijaji, asingatha izigidi zamatyala nyaka ngamnye.

  • Ityala leCivil:[ Ingxabano phakathi kwabantu okanye imibutho, njengentlukwano yesivumelwano, iingxwabangxwaba zomntu, iingxabano zempahla, kunye nemicimbi yomthetho wentsapho. Injongo kukunikezela ngekhambi elinomonakalo wemali/imali okanye umyalelo / kwiqela elonzakeleyo.
  • Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho: Amatyala abandakanya izityholo eziziswa ngurhulumente kubantu abatyholwa ngokutyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho. Ityala kufuneka lingqine linetyala ngaphandle kwamathandabuzo. Iinkundla zamatyala zigqiba ukuba unetyala okanye umsulwa kwaye zikhupha izigwebo ukuba ummangalelwa ubanjelwe.

Iinkundla zetyala zidla ngokucalucalulwa yimibandela engombandela. Ngokomzekelo, amagunya amaninzi aneenkundla ezizimeleyo ezahlukeneyo, iinkundla ezincinane, iinkundla zentsapho, neenkundla zabantwana. Ezi ntwathi zikhethekileyo zisingatha amatyala ngokunempumelelo nangobuchule obungakumbi. EUnited States, iinkundla zetyala leSithili zibizwa ngokuba ziiNkundla zeSithili sase-U., ngoxa iinkundla zetyala zibekwa ngamagama anjengeNkundla yeNtlanganiso, okanye iNkundla yeSithili ixhomekeke kurhulumente.

Ityala libandakanya ukuvula iingxelo, ukunikelwa kobungqina (ubungqina bamangqina, amaxwebhu, imiboniso yomzimba), iimpikiswano zokuqukumbela, kwandule ke ukuqukumbela. Kumatyala abachopheli-tyala, abachopheli-tyala bagqiba ngemibuzo yenyaniso; umgwebi ugqiba imibandela yomthetho. Ekuvavanyweni kwesihlalo. Ijaji igqiba zombini. Emva kwesigqibo, iqela eliphulukanayo lisenokubhenela.

2. Iinkundla eziphandayo

Iinkundla zetyala zihlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla zamatyala. Aziqhubeli matyala amatsha okanye zive ubungqina obutsha. Endaweni yoko, zivavanya ingxelo yenkundla yamatyala ukuze zibone enoba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenziwe ezinokuthi zibe nempembelelo. Iifayile zamaqela zibhalwe kafutshane, kwaye iqela labagwebi liphulaphula iingxoxo ezithethwayo. Inkcazo isekelwe ekubeni umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokuchanekileyo, hayi ngokuzibeka phantsi izibakala.

  • [[UMTL:0] Purpose: Ukuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswa ngokungaguqukiyo nangokuchanekileyo, nokulungisa naziphi iimpazamo zomthetho. Iinkundla zezicelo zikwadlala indima ekuphuhliseni nasekucaciseni umthetho ngokukhupha iimbono ezibhaliweyo ezisebenza njengemizekelo kumatyala exesha elizayo.
  • Imali efunyenweyo: Inkundla enika imvume ingasixhasa isigqibo senkundla yamatyala (isingqi) okanye isiguqulele. Isenokulithumela kwakhona eli tyala (linye) ukulityala elitsha okanye ukuqhubekekisa ityala elihambelana nomthetho walo. Ezinye iinkundla ze-appelta zinegunya kumacala oluntu nawamatyala, ngoxa abanye benobuchule kwiindawo ezithile ezifana nerhafu okanye umthetho osemthethweni.

Kumazwe amaninzi, kukho imigangatho emibini yeenkundla ezichaphazelekayo: iinkundla eziphakathi ezichaphazelekayo kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo (inkundla ephakamileyo). Iinkundla ze-intermediate appenellate ziva izibheno ezininzi njengomcimbi wasekunene, lo gama inkundla ephakamileyo isoloko ihlola ngokusemthethweni, ikhetha kuphela amatyala abalulekileyo asemthethweni.

Ukufunda okuninzi malunga neenkundla zezahlulelo

3. IiNkundla eziPhakamileyo

Inkundla ephakamileyo yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo iphakamileyo, isoloko inesingqiniso sokucacisa umthetho nemiba yomgaqo-siseko. Izigqibo zayo zisebenza kuzo zonke iinkundla ezincinci. Indima ephambili yenkundla ephakamileyo kukucombulula imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni nokuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usebenza ngendlela efanayo kuyo yonke inkqubo yokugweba.

  • I-Role: Ukuva izibheno kwimicimbi ebalulekileyo kawonke-wonke, kuquka imibuzo edibeneyo, iinkcazelo ezingqubanayo zomthetho wezwe (kwinkqubo yorhulumente), kunye nemibandela echaphazela sonke isakhiwo esisemthethweni. Inkundla ephakamileyo ikwamisela ubugqeba bemithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ngamandla aziwa ngokuba luhlolo lwezobucukubhede [[[FLT:]]
  • [[NTLALA: 0] Impinda yeJodicial: Amandla okwenza monakalo wemithetho okanye imisebenzi yempatho engqubana nomgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lilelona litye lembombo lokuhlola nolungelelaniso. EUnited States, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iseke uhlolo lwezogwebo kwityala lophawu Barbury v. Madison [183]).

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo ziyahluka kwimimiselo nakwiinkqubo. Ngokomzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ineejaji ezisithoba, ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yoBukumkani obumanyeneyo inamazwe ali-12, njengeIndiya neKhanada, aneJaji eNtloko enkulu nabagwebi abaliqela. Le nkundla isoloko iphulaphula inani elilinganiselweyo lamatyala, akhethwa kumawaka ezicelo. Iimbono zeenkundla eziphakamileyo zidla ngokubumba ibutho labantu kangangamashumi eminyaka, zithetha ngemibandela enjengamalungelo abantu, inkululeko yokuthetha, kunye nomlinganiselo wamandla phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente.

Iwebhsayithi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.

4. Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo

Iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho ziye zamisa iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha iindidi ezithile zempikiswano ngokunempumelelo nangobuchule obungakumbi. Ezi nkundla zisoloko zinemithetho elinganiselweyo elawula imimandla ethile. Imizekelo iquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] IiNkundla zeTax: Yiva iingxwabangxwaba phakathi kwabaqeshi berhafu nabaphathi berhafu kuvavanyo lwerhafu, izigwebo, kunye neemali ezibuyiselweyo.
  • IiNkundla zeBankipruct: amatyala abandakanya abantu abanyibilikayo okanye amashishini, ukuvelela ukuphinda kulungiswe okanye ukuncitshiswa kwezinto.
  • IiNkundla zoNtlango: incoko efana noqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukukhuliswa kwabantwana, ukuphathwa kwabantwana, kunye nogonyamelo lwasekhaya. Basoloko begxininisa ekungeneleni kunye nezilangazelelo ezingcono zomntwana.
  • [[UMTL: 0] IiNkundla zeJuvenile: amatyala abandakanya abantwana abatyholwa ngezenzo zobuhlolo-calucago okanye abafuna ukukhuselwa (umz., ukuxhatshazwa okanye ukutyeshelwa). Ingqwalaselo ijongelwa ekulungiseni izinto kunokusohlwaywa.
  • [[UMKCI] Inkundla yeNkqutyana yeNkqutyana: Ukusombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwabaqeshi nabaqeshwa, kuquka ukugxothwa ngokungekho sikweni, iintengo zomvuzo, kunye nemicimbi yokuthelekisa.
  • IiNkundla zezizwe ngezizwe: umzekelo, iNkundla yezizwe ngezizwe yeJaji (ICJ) ilungisa iimpikiswano zomthetho phakathi kwamazwe, ngelixa iNkundla yezizwe ngezizwe yolwaphulo-mthetho (ICCC) imangalela abantu ngabanye ngokutshatyalaliswa kwesizwe, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho oluchaphazelekayo ebantwini.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zinceda ekunciphiseni umthwalo kwiinkundla zamatyala jikelele kwaye zinika ubuchule obuqwalaselweyo. Zisenokuba zisebenzisa iinkqubo ezilula kwaye zisebenzisa iijaji ezineemvelaphi ezifanelekileyo.

Iindima Zeenkundla Ekugwetyweni

Iinkundla zinendima ezininzi kwinkqubo yokugweba, nganye ifak' isandla kusukelo olubanzi lokulondoloza umthetho nocwangco, ukukhusela amalungelo nokuqinisekisa ukuba kulungile.

1. Izigqibo zokuxambulisana

Enye yemisebenzi ephambili yeenkundla kukucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela. Oku kubandakanya iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeengxabano, eziquka iimbambano zobuqu, ezorhwebo, kunye nezikawonke wonke. Iinkundla zinika i-foramenti elungelelanisiweyo nengakhethiyo apho icala ngalinye linganikela ubungqina neempikiswano. Kodwa ke, isigqibo singathabatha uhlobo lomgwebo okanye isigqibo esiwulungisayo lo mba, ngokufuthi ngomyalelo onyanzelisayo. Iinkundla zikhuthaza nezinye iindlela zokuphikisana (ADR) ezinjengesixhobo sokugcina ulwazi kunye nokulungisa, ezinokungabi naxabiso likhulu kwaye zingabi natyala lipheleleyo. Noko ke, iinkundla zihlala ziwuyeka ngokupheleleyo umjikelezo xa i-ADR okanye xa kuphakama imibuzo ebalulekileyo.

Izigqibo ezibangela ukungavisisani ezivela kwiinkundla zinegalelo ekuzinziseni intlalo kuba abemi namashishini bayazi ukuba ukungavisisani kunokuconjululwa ngoxolo nangokuvisisana nomthetho.

Ukutolikwa Komthetho

Iinkundla zichaza imithetho nemigaqo, zicacisa ukusebenza kwazo. Imithetho nemigaqo isoloko ibhalwa ngokweemeko jikelele, kwaye intsingiselo yayo kwiimeko ezithile kufuneka inqunywe ngabagwebi abagwebi. Ngokutolika, iinkundla zizala zize zicombulule izinto ezingalunganga kumthetho. Le nkcazelo inceda ukubumba imigaqo nemigaqo yexesha elizayo. Kwinkqubo zomthetho eqhelekileyo, imfundiso yemizekelo ithetha ukuba ukutolikwa kweenkundla ezingaphantsi kwiimeko ezifanayo. Oku kudala ingqokelela eqinisekileyo nengaguquguqukiyo yomthetho.

Ngokomzekelo, xa ubugcisa obutsha buphakamisa imibuzo mayelana namalungelo obuqu, iinkundla zingachaza imithetho ekhoyo ukumisela indlela esetyenziswa ngayo kugcino-lwazi lwamanani. Iimeko zophawu lwelizwe ezifana Riley v. California (2014, apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. iwise umthetho wokuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokuphendla isiganeko seselfowuni ukuze abambe, bonisa indlela iinkundla ezihlaziya ngayo ukuqonda okusemthethweni kwiimeko ezintsha.

3. Ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo

Iinkundla zinendima ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yabo. Ziqinisekisa ukuba imithetho ayiwachasi amalungelo omGaqo-siseko, njengenkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Ngokuhlola okufanelekileyo.

Imizekelo iquka ukuhlahlela izikolo eUnited States nge Brown v. Board of Education (1954), kunye nonyuso lokulingana komtshato kumazwe amaninzi ngemithetho yenkundla. Iinkundla zikwakhusela amalungelo abamangalelwa, kuquka ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni, ilungelo lokucebisa, nelungelo elichasene nobuqu (62.incrinication).

4. ISihlalo soNyaka noLuntu

Ngezigwebo zazo, iinkundla zingakhuthaza ukusesikweni nokungalingani, zithetha ngemibandela yezentlalo, zikhuthaza nokukhuthaza amaqela aphantsi. Ngoxa iinkundla zingezozindlu zowiso-mthetho, izigqibo zazo zinokuba neziphumo ezifanelekileyo zentlalo. Umzekelo, iinkundla ziye zasetyenziswa ekuqhubeni phambili ukulingana kwendoda nendoda, iziphene, kunye nokukhuselwa kwemekobume. Ngokutolika imithetho ngendlela ebonisa ukususwa kwemilinganiselo yoluntu, iinkundla zinganceda ekulungiseni ukungalungisi okungokwembali.

Noko ke, iinkundla kufuneka zilumke ukuze zingayeki indima yazo ekwenzeni inkqubo, ethetha ukuba amasebe anyuliweyo ajongelwe phantsi. Ukulungelelanisa inkqubo yokugweba nokuthintela kuyinto eqhubekayo. Kodwa ke, ijaji isoloko isebenza njengengqwalasela kumthetho omkhulu, ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane anokutyeshelwa ziinkqubo zezobupolitika.

5. Ukuxhasa Umthetho

Iinkundla ziphakamisa umthetho ngokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa ngokungaguquguqukiyo nangokungakhethi, ngaloo ndlela kugcinwa intembelo yoluntu kwinkqubo yomthetho. Umthetho uthetha ukuba akukho mntu ungaphezulu komthetho, kuquka amagosa karhulumente. Iinkundla zinyanzelisa izivumelwano, zohlwaya izaphula-mthetho, kwaye zigcina amaziko karhulumente ebeke ityala ngezenzo ezingekho mthethweni. Ngaphandle kwalo msebenzi, ibutho labantu lingaya kuphambukela kwimizwana nesiphithiphithiphithi.

Umthetho ukwafuna ukuba iinkundla zifikeleleke, zizimele, kwaye zingakhethi cala. Xa iinkundla zisebenza ngokufanelekileyo, abemi banokholo lokuba iimpikiswano zabo ziya kugqitywa ngezizathu ezifanelekileyo, kungekhona ngesiseko segunya, imali, okanye unxulumano. Imibutho yezizwe ngezizwe enjenge yoMthetho weZizwe Ezimanyeneyo [ igxininisa uMthetho ongundoqo weenkundla ekuxhaseni inkqubela phambili noxolo.

6. Ukukhangela Amandla karhulumente

Kulawulo-siseko, iinkundla zinegunya lokuhlola izenzo zamasebe alawulayo nawamagunya owiso-mthetho. Eli gunya lokuhlola liqinisekisa ukuba imithetho nezenzo zolawulo zihambelana nomgaqo-siseko. Kuluvavanyo olusisiseko kurhulumente ophathwe kakubi. IiNkundla zingavakalisa imimiselo engavumelani nemithetho, imigaqo yolawulo engenanto, kwaye ziyalela amagosa karhulumente ukuba athobele umthetho. Le ndima ibalulekile ekulondolozeni ukwahlulwa kwamagunya nokukhusela abemi ekuxhatshazweni ngurhulumente.

Ngokomzekelo, [[Nkqutyana 0] Iqumrhu loLwimi loMgaqo-siseko lichaza ukuba uhlolo lomthetho luyimfundiso engundoqo yomthetho-siseko wase-U.S. ngaphandle kolu vavanyo, amasebe owiso-mthetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu anokusebenza ngaphandle kokuthintelwa ngumGaqo-siseko.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda umsebenzi weenkundla neentlobo zazo ezahlukeneyo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela okuphunyezwa ngayo okusesikweni kwibutho labantu. Inkundla nganye, ukusuka kweyona nkundla isezantsi yamatyala ukuya kweyona nkundla iphakamileyo, yenza indima ebalulekileyo ekuqinisekiseni ukuba imithetho itolikwa kwaye isetyenziswe kakuhle, ikhusela amalungelo abantu, kunye nokucombulula iimbambano. Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zongeza ubuchule kunye nobuchule. Iinkundla zenkundla / "isigqibo sobulungisa", ukucaciswa komthetho, ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo, ukulawulwa kwemithetho, ukulawulwa kwentlalo-ntle, nokuvavanywa komthetho, kwaye ziqinisekisa igunya likarhulumente lixhomekeke kwimpilo ye-demokhrasi. Njengobameli bezonkalo, iinkundla zibalulekile ekusebenzeni kwebutho le-demokhrasi, kwaye ukuzimela kwabo kufuneka kulondolozwe ukuze kulondolozwe ukuthemba kwabo.