Ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe namalungelo omgaqo-siseko kumele olunye lwezona ngxoxo zingapheliyo nezinempikiswano kulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Ukususela ekusungulweni kwe-United States ukuya kwixesha lamanani, oorhulumente baye bajamelana ngokuphindaphindiweyo nengxaki yokukhusela abemi kwiingozi ezingaphandle nangaphakathi ngexesha elinye belondoloza inkululeko esisiseko ekhuselweyo kwimiqathango yabo. Olu xinezeleko asiyo nje ingxoxo yemfundo yemfundo yemfundo ephambili; lubonakala kumthetho, kwiinkundla zenkundla, nakwixesha lobomi bemihla ngemihla, ukubumbana phakathi korhulumente nomntu ngamnye. Umbuzo ongundoqo uhlala uhleli: lungaqinisekisa njani ukhuseleko ngaphandle kokuncama inkululeko efuna ukukhusela? Eli nqaku lihlolisisa ixesha eliphambili elingokwembali apho olu nyathelo luvavanywe, ukuvavanyaniswa kwemithetho yenkundla yezomthetho neemeko, ukuvavanywa kwemiqatha yemicimbi yezombutho, ukuvavanya iingxelo zentlanganiso, nokuncitshiswa kwemiqatha yamalungelo aqhubeka ngayo.

Imeko

Ukuqonda ulungelelwano phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe namalungelo omgaqo-siseko kufuna ukujonga emva kwiziganeko ezibalulekileyo zembali eziye zaguqula ngokusisiseko indlela esemthethweni nentlalo. La mathuba abonisa indlela iintlekele ezisoloko zibangela ngayo izenzo zorhulumente ezikhawulezileyo, nangona zicetyiswe ukukhusela uhlanga, ezikwanokuphazamisa inkululeko yasekuhlaleni. Iimeko ezintathu ezibalulekileyo zivele: Imfazwe Yehlabathi I, iMfazwe Yehlabathi II, kunye nexesha lasemva kwe-9/11.

IMfazwe Yehlabathi I noMthetho we-Espionage ka-1917

Ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi I, urhulumente wase-U.S. wamisela uMthetho we-Esponigage ka1917 , oku kuphazamisa kolwaphulo-mthetho ngemisebenzi yemikhosi kunye nokusasazwa kolwazi olugqalwa njengeyingozi kukhuseleko lwesizwe. Lo mthetho wasetyenziselwa ukumangalela abagxeki bemfazwe nokucinezela ukungavumelani. Isenzo saphakamisa imibuzo enzulu malunga nemida yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo phantsi koMphengululo wokuqala, ingakumbi xa ukhuseleko lwesizwe luquququzelelwa. Kamva iNkumbelo ePhakamileyo yaphendula le mibuzo enjenge [[FLT:]] Scheck v. [[FLT]. [19] [19], apho uJajini okhuselweyo phakathi komthetho wokhuseleko lwezomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho (19]) [FFT.[5] [FFFF] i-expt], uthelight, uthelight , ingathi

Ukungenelela kweMerika ebudeni beMfazwe Yehlabathi II

Mhlawumbi owona mzekelo umbi kakhulu wokhuseleko lwesizwe olulawula amalungelo esizwe yi- intsebenziswano yamaJaphani e- emva kohlaselo kwiZibuko iPearl. Ngo1942, uLawulo oluPhezulu 906 lwagunyazisa ukunyanzeliswa nokubanjwa kwabantu abangaphezu kwe-120 000 bomnombo wobuzwe wamaJapan, abaninzi kubo babengabemi base-U. urhulumente wacaphula imfuneko yomkhosi noloyiko lokunganyani, kodwa akukho bungqina bobunyani bobunyani obaziwayo bakha baveliswa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaphakamisa ukhuseleko lwemiqathango yezo zenzo [FOLT:2].[FLT] v3] [FLT] [4], isigqibo esiye sagwetyelwe ngokubanziswa ngokubanziswa ngokungekho sikweni. Oku kuhlala kusithiwonga umqondiso wobugqhinga lwesizwe.

Umthetho we-USA PTRIOT Emva kwe-9/11

Ukuhlasela kwabagrogrisi ngoSeptemba 11, 2001, kwabangela ulwando olubalulekileyo lwamandla olawulo karhulumente ukususela kwiMfazwe Yomlomo. USUSA Umthetho , ogqithe nje iiveki emva kokuhlasela, wandisa igunya lokunyanzelisa umthetho kunye namaqumrhu obulumko ukuze ajonge ukunxibelelana, ukufikelela kwiingxelo zobuqu, nokuthintela okungeyo ekwangeyo. Izenzo ezinjengeCandelo 215 zivumele ukuqokelelwa kwemibhobho emikhulu yemibhobho, ngelixa i-metap kunye neeleta zokhuseleko zesizwe zigunyaziswe ngokulula ukuphatha ulawulo olungephiyo. La manyathelo aye efanelekile ekuthinteleni uhlaselo oluzayo, kodwa abaxhasi benkululeko baphikisa ukungaqiniseki kwemiqatha ekwakuphelo olungekho sikweni. Isenzo sokuzidibaniselwa kwakhona kwamaxesha amaninzi, sekunjalo iintiyo ezingekho mngeni.

Umthetho ongundoqo kunye namatyala eNkundla

Ukutyhubela iinkulungwane, uthotho lwemithetho nemithetho ephawulekayo iye yachaza imida phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe namalungelo omgaqo - siseko. Le migaqo ibonakalisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokulungelelanisa umsebenzi karhulumente wokukhusela nembopheleleko yakhe yokuhlonela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye.

Imisebenzi YeAlien Neyentengiso Yowe - 1798

Enye yezona ndlela zolawulo lokuqala nezinengxabano zesizwe yaba yi iZenzo zeNtloko kunye neNjongo, ezityikitywe nguMongameli John Adams emkhosini wemfazwe neFransi. Ezi zenzo zakwenza ulwaphulo mthetho ukupapasha “ubuxoki, ukuhlazisa, ukuphatha kakubi, nokubhala okungathandekiyo” kurhulumente, kwaye kwakhona banika umongameli igunya lokugxotha abantu abangengomashishini ababonakala beyingozi. Izenzo zadityaniswa nenkcaso ekrakrakranisiweyo ye-Ddemocracratic-Republics enjengoThomas noJames Maconson, ezathi zathi zithetha ukuba zaphula isiHlam sokuqala. Nangona izenzo zaphelelwa okanye zaphinda zabekwa ngo-1802, zamisela ideko loburhulumente lokuhlola iimeko olugqalwayo neyaluko lwangaphambili phakathi kolawulo lolawulo lobuzwe kunye nolulawulo loluntu.

Schenck v. waseUnited States (1919)

Njengoko kukhankanyiwe kumongo wembali, Scheck v. United States lityala elisisiseko kwiFirst Amendment jurisprade. UCharles Schenc, umsofeli-socialis, wayesabele amaphetshana akhuthaza ukuchasana nezomkhosi ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukunyamela kwayo phantsi koMthetho we-Espionage, ngokubhaliweyo kweJaji yeSigqibo sokuqala i-Holmes ayikhuseli intetho ebangela “ingozi ekhoyo” yokuzisa ububi obuthi iBranburg, kodwa ingolongo zomvo lwezomthetho xa kuthe kwabekwa ityala lokhuseleko.

UKorematsu . waseMelika (1944)

[[NTLT:0] Korematsu v. United States, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ubukho bomgaqo-siseko wesivumelwano samaJaphani. Uluvo oluninzi, olubhalwe nguJaphani Hugo Black, lwathi imfuneko yokukhusela i-essolication kunye nokungqubana ingaphezulu kwamalungelo eqela elinye lohlanga. Kukwaliwa okudumileyo, uMgwebi uRobert H. Jackson walumkisa ukuba isigqibo “simalunga nesixhobo esilayisiweyo esilungiselelwe isandla salo naliphi igunya elinokuzisa phambili imfuno engxamisekileyo. Ityala alizange liphendulwe ngokusemthethweni, nangona ityala lagwetywa ngokubanziswa ngokubanzi. Ngonyaka 2018, iNkundla ephakamileyo [FLT].[2][3]

Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004)

Emva kohlaselo olungu-9/11, i-Romsted erhanelwa ukuba yintshaba, kuquka ummi wase-U.S. Yaser Hamdi, kwizakhiwo zomkhosi ngaphandle kokuwacel ’ ityala okanye ukuwanika ukuba afikelele kwicebo elingokwasemthethweni. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi-] Hamdi v. IRumsteld yawisa umthetho wokuba abachotshi abakwi-U.S.Abemi kufuneka babe nethuba lokuvavanya ukuvalelwa kwabo phambi kwesigqibo sobundilele. IJaji uDawe lika-Sandra Day O’Connor yagxininisa imbono yokuba “imeko yemfazwe ayisosikhunjulwanga ncam xa ifika kumalungelo abemi besizwe." Le meko iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo abo baphantsi kwe-Demente ayipheliyo, kwana exhotyiswe naphakathi kwemfazwe.

Jones (202)

Kwixesha lamanani, umba wolawulo lukarhulumente ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso waphambili kwi- United States v. Ityala lalibandakanya isixhobo sokulandelela i-GPS esibekwe kwinqwelo-mafutha erhanelwayo ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni. INkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba ukunamathela kwangaphakathi kukarhulumente kwisixhobo kwinqwelo-mafutha kunye nocwangciso lwayo olulandelayo lube “ukuhlola” phantsi koMphengululo wesi-Chuzu. Kodwa ke, izigwebo zahlula zahlula i-gcisa i-gcisa egqweni ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni. Inkundla ephezulu yagqiba ukuba ukugadiswa kwexesha elide kujongekelwe ukuba lizimele. Le meko ivule ucango oluqhubekayo ukuze kuqwalaselwe uludwe lwe-data, kuquka nokuqokelelwa kwe-data ye-intanethi ye-intanethi.

Impembelelo Ekukhululweni Kwabemi

Amanyathelo athatyathwe egameni lokhuseleko lwesizwe adla ngokubangela umonakalo omkhulu nohlala uhleli kwinkululeko yasekuhlaleni. Nangona eminye imiqathango ingeyoyoxeshana, eminye ibophelelekile kumthetho nakwindlela yokusebenza, ibuyisela ulwalamano phakathi kwabemi norhulumente.

Iinkqubo zoMdla neZixhalabisi Zobuqu

Iinkqubo zokuhlola i-PRISM ezisetyenziswa njengeNational Security Letters ngaphandle kolawulo lomthetho ziphakamisa inkxalabo enzulu yoMmiselo Wesine. Abaxhasi be-Iprojekthi baphikisa ukuba ezi nkqubo zibangela ukuqhaqhazela konxibelelwano lwabucala. Njengoko abantu ngabanye besazi ukuba banokugadwa. Ukurhoxiswa kwemfihlo ye--mfihlo kuchaphazela intatheli, abaxhasi abambalwa, nabambalwa. [[FLT:]

Ukunyeliswa Nocalucalulo Lobuhlanga

Iinkqubo zokhuseleko zesizwe zijolise kwimbali yesizwe, yonqulo, kunye nezizwe, ezikhokelela kucalucalulo olusasazekileyo. Ulwahlulo lwamaJaphani lungowona mzekelo ugqithisileyo, kodwa emva kwe-9/11 iinkqubo zikwafuneka ukuba amaSilamsi, ama-Arabhu, kunye nama-South Asia. Iinkqubo ezifana ne- uKhuselo lwesizwe lokungena-Extibration System (Inkqubo ye-NTP),[FLTS:1] ifuneke ukuba abantu abangangeni-ziyo kumazwe athile babhalise kwaye babhaliswe, bave, bavene, besenza imozulu yoloyiko loloyiko. Ngoxa ezinye iinkqubo zobuhlanga zirhoxilongo lwesikhululo, ii-ejolo, kunye nophelo oluchaseneyo. Oku kungangqubani kuthelisi mthetho wokhuseleko lwe-Celal Clasko, ukunyaniswa kokhuseleko olunyanisekileyo, uluntu olukhoyo.

Imiqathango Engokukhululeka Kwinkululeko Yokuthetha Neyombutho

Ngamaxesha amanqam, oorhulumente badla ngokuthatha inyathelo lokuthula ungquzulwano. UMthetho we-Espionage kunye noMthetho we-Sedition ka-1818 wasetyenziselwa ukumangalela abachasi-mfazwe. Ngexesha lemfazwe yaseVietnam, urhulumente wazama ukuvala ukupapashwa kwePentagon Papers, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula iNew York Times Co. v United States [10] [10] [10] [10])] ekuzanyweni kwangaphambili ukuba uthintelo lwalungalawulwa yimithetho ephakathi kwemikhosi yesizwe. Kutsha, ukusetyenziswa kwenkxaso yezinto eziphathekayo ukumangalela abantu ngabanye ukuthetha okanye ukubeka ityala elinxulumene namaqela abagrogribi achaziweyo. [[FLT:] USMTES] UMSXUS [FF:] [5] [2015]

Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidlulileyo

Ukulungelelana kwamalungelo esizwe namalungelo omgaqo - siseko kuyaqhubeka kuguquka ngokukhawuleza, kuqhutywa bubugcisa obutsha, kuvela izisongelo, yaye kutshintsha isimo sengqondo sikawonke - wonke.

Ukuzikhusela Nento Efihlakeleyo Yogcino-lwazi

Ukhuseleko lwesizwe luye lwayintsika yokhuseleko, njengoko ulawulo lwesizwe, intelekelelo, kunye nolwaphuko logcino-lwazi lusongela isiseko esibalulekileyo kunye nozinzo lwezoqoqosho. Oorhulumente ehlabathini lonke baye bamisela imithetho efuna iinkampani ukuba zabelane ngolwazi lobugxwayiba, ingxelo yokwaphula, kwaye bade banikezele “izinyuko ezifihlakeleyo” zokunxibelelana. Ezi zilinganiso zingquzulana nelungelo lobuqu nokhuseleko logcino-lwazi lobuqu. Umzekelo, [[FLT: 0] Ukhuseleko lwe-Cybersecutity Information Information Act (CISA)[FFF] [FLT] [FF] [1] kulawulo lwe-US.S. ikhuthaza ukwabelana unxibelelwano nolawulo lwendlela yonxibelelwano nolawulo lwehlabathi lonke, kodwa abagxeki abalulumkisa ukuba lusetyenziswe ngaphaya kwenjongo yolwazi yehlabathi lwaseYurophu (GRAFFFF]).[3]

Amanyathelo Okulwa Neenkqubo Zobuphekula Namalungelo Abemi

I- Post9/11 yamanyathelo okulwa ne-orthobi ayaqhubeka eguquka. Ukusetyenziswa koluhlu olungekho mgangathweni, ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga eGuantanamo Bay, kunye nokubulawa ngokugqitha kwi-drones kuphakamisa imibuzo enzulu ye-gractical. Ukusetyenziswa komkhosi womkhosi (AMFF)[FLF] kudlule ngo-2001] ukuthethelela izenzo zomkhosi ngokuchasene noluhlu olubanzi lwamaqela angaphaya kwalawo abandakanye ngqo kwi-9/11. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba oku kuyila imfazwe engapheliyo, ukuphengulula amandla aphezulu. Okwangoku, ukuphikisana nogonyamelo (CVE) iinkqubo zogonyamelo (C) ziye zagxekwa ngokunjalo nangezinye iimvume zokhuseleko zoluntu. Ukuzinziwa kwemiqobo. Ukuzi ii-IMelika i-Ibralbuniev Union [FFT] [12][3] kunye nezinye iinkqubo zenkundla zenkundla zetyala zetyala zoburhulumente zoluntu eziqhelekileyo, zokuvavanya iziphumo zolwaphulo zolwaphulo-mthetho zomthetho zo

Indima Yezoshishino Zezentlalo Kukhuseleko Lwesizwe

Amaqonga eenkqubo zobugcisa asebenza ngokuphindwe kabini kukhuseleko lwesizwe. Asetyenziswa ukujolisa nokuphembelela iinguqu zemibutho yabagrogrisi, kodwa kwakhona kubhekiso-lwazi lukarhulumente kunye namaphulo okususa ulwazi. Ingxoxo yeCandelo lama- 230 loMthetho woNxibelelwano, ekhusela amaqonga ekubekeni ityala abasebenzisi, ukudibana namatyala okhuseleko lwesizwe. Amaziko omthetho afuna ugcino-lwazi oluvela kwiqonga lokuhlola izisongelo, kodwa abaxhasi bezobuqu baphikisa ukuba ezi zizicelo zisoloko zingenako ukuphatha okufanelekileyo. [[FLT: 0] I-Ectron Foundation Foundation (EFFFF) [FFF:1]] [FLT]] ngokungaqhelekanga [FLT:] imingeniskishosholo yolawulo lwezentlalo, ngexesha elinye loburhulumente lobuvangeli be-majelo, ngexesha lokukhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kwe-operaldertika.

Iimbono Nobuxoki Boluntu

Uluvo lukawonke wonke lunendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni iinkqubo ezilawula ukhuseleko lwesizwe namalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Amaqela akhuthaza ukukhutshwa kwengca, imibutho engqukuva, kunye nabemi ngabanye bonke banegalelo kwingxoxo eqhubekayo yalo mlinganiselo.

Iintshukumo zeGrassroots ukwenzela inkululeko yamakhaya

Kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika, intsebenziswano zengca zirhoxisile urhulumente. Ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi, amaqela okuchasa utshaba kunye nawobusoshiyala alungelelaniswe ngokuchasene noMthetho we-Espionage. Ngexesha lemfazwe yaseVietnam, abalwayo nemfazwe bacel ’ umngeni imithetho yedrafti kunye nokugada. Kutshanje, # yeka i-OnlineSyricting[[[FLD:1] iphulo ne-'i-'i-'i-'i-'i-'at' i-'i-'i'i-'i-'i-'i-AD [[FLTY] ixhobisa intelogo kulwa ulawulo lwe-CYUSCMTT' oluziweyo [. Le ntshukumo zidla ukwenza imibutho enceda ibhutyebileyo, iinteko yoncedo lukawonke-wonke, i-othel.

Ukukholosa Urhulumente Nokhuseleko

Ukuthemba urhulumente kungundoqo wokutshintsha kwengxoxo yesizwe yokhuseleko. Uhlolisiso lubonisa ukuba emva kwe-9/11, uninzi lwamaMerika lwalukulungele ukuncama inkululeko yabemi ukwenzela ukhuseleko olunyuliweyo. Kodwa njengoko utyhilo lokuxhatshazwa komgangatho wokuxhatshazwa luyehla. Uvavanyo lweSnowden oluthi ngo-2013, lwakhokelela ekuncipheni kwentembelo enzulu kwiNSA neKhomishini. Ukwenziwa kwentengiso kwakhona kukwanendima: ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zokulwa nokhuseleko rhoqo ngenxa yokuba ngabahlali bemi abanqolobi kufuneka bahambe benjenjalo. Umzekelo, uphando lwe-Pew Prew lwafumanisa ukuba ama-71% oopera eMerika akholelwa ukuba urhulumente afanele akwazi ukuqwalasela unxibelelwano, kodwa angama-38% kuphela axhasa abemi abaqhelekileyo. Lo mdanganiso ugxininiso wokutyibiliko-mthetho oqhelekileyo kufuneka uhambele ubonise ukuthembeka nokugcinwa kolawulo, ukubugqweqweqwe, ukubuliso, kunye nokugwebela ulawulo lobunjwa, uphathothotho lwezinzo lweziko.

Indima Yemfundo Ekukhuthazeni Uphando

Imfundo sisixhobo esibalulekileyo sokukhuthaza ubuchule bobumi obukwaziyo ukuvavanya amaxabiso akhuphisanayo. Iizifundo ezikumthetho wesomGaqo-siseko, izembali eziquka iingxoxo zeengxaki zokhuseleko lwesizwe zinceda abafundi baqonde ukuthengwa kwentengiselwano. Iintlangano ezifana ne zeSiko lamaLungelo kunye neSiko loMgaqo-siseko sobuzwelo-siseko [[] [[FLT]] unika oovimba bootitshala kunye noluntu. Iinkqubo zokufunda iMedia nazo zinceda abemi bavavanye abahlala kurhulumente bavavanye izityholo ngokhuseleko. Uluntu luxhotyiso olungcono lokuqhuba inkqubo yedemokhrasi nokunika amagosa-mthetho ityala ngenxa yokukhohla. Ngaphandle koloyiko olunjalo, uluvo lwasekuhlaleni olusisigxina lweziweyo, ukukhokelelwa kukhuseleko lokhuseleko lokwexeshana nje.

Isiphelo

Isenzo sokulinganisa ukhuseleko lwesizwe namalungelo omgaqo-siseko sihlala singenye yezona mibandela zibalulekileyo kwibutho lamaxa anamhlanje ledemokhrasi. Njengoko imbali ibonisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo, amaxesha amanqam alinga oorhulumente ukuba bandise amagunya abo ngokulahlekelwa yinkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Kodwa yona kanye injongo yomgaqo-siseko kukubeka imida kwelo gunya. Ukuqinisekisa ukuba kwanaxa kujongwa njengengozi enkulu, imigaqo engundoqo yenkululeko, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokulingana akuyekwangayekwangayekwa. Umthetho ongundoqo namatyala enkundla axoxhululwayo kweli nqaku (*) ukusuka kwiAlienssion naseSikhundleni soluntu, kuya kubonakalisa ukuxakeka kwezenzo zezenzo zezenzo ze-Alifact [[FLT]].[FLT] [1] [ict1] [iiigrac 1] iprojectivesssssss elungele ukusetyenziswa kwemeko yoluntu, kodwa imele ihlale ihlale ngokuthembeka, inyaniswe ngokuthembeka, ikhuselwe ngokusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa ngokungenayo, iintya kokunga