Ukwazisa: Ukwakhiwa Komanyano LwaseMelika

Ulwahlulo lwamandla phakathi korhulumente worhulumente wesizwe norhulumente luphawu oluchazayo lwenkqubo yezobupolitika eUnited States. Esi sakhiwo, esaziwa njenge-constationalism, sayilwa ngabom ngabaseki abasunguli boMthombo wokukhusela ukuxineneka kwegunya kwisiqu esinye esisembindini ngeli lixa usalungiselela ukuba kubekho into ebumbeneyo yesizwe. UMgaqo-siseko we-U.U.S. unikela ucwangciso olucacileyo lonxulumano, ukuchaza iingcebisi ezithe ngqo kunye nokubeka imida emele ihlonelwe ngowo omabini amanqanaba karhulumente. Ukuqonda oko umgangatho ngamnye unokwenza kwaye angenakukwenza kuyimfuneko kubemi, abanomatshini, kunye naye nabani na ofuna ukuqhuba ubugosa-o bolawulo lwaseMelika. Eli nqaku linikela uvavanyo olubanzi lwamandla orhulumente, ukulinganiselwa kwawo, kunye nokusebenza kwawo phakathi kwabo.

Amandla aGqityiweyo kaRhulumente woManyano

Urhulumente wesizwe ngurhulumente onamagunya alinganiselweyo, adweliswe. ICandelo le-8 lomGaqo-siseko lidwelisa amagunya athile anikwe iBhunga, amaninzi awo aye achazwa kabanzi ekuhambeni kwexesha. La mandla adwelisweyo abumba isiseko segunya likarhulumente kwaye aquka ezi nkalo zilandelayo zibalulekileyo:

  • Ukulawula uphatho lwamazwe angaphandle norhwebo: I-Claus yezorhwebo inika iBhunga amandla "wokuhlanganisa urhwebo namazwe asemzini, kunye naphakathi kwamaZwe aliqela, kunye nezizwe zase-Indiya." Eli gunya liye lasetyenziswa ukuthethelela umthetho worhulumente kuyo yonke into ukusuka kwimithetho yemisebenzi ukuya kwimimiselo yemekobume, logama umsebenzi ochaphazelekayo uchaphazela kakhulu urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo.
  • Ukuqokelela Imali kunye nokumisela Ixabiso Layo: Inqaku I, Icandelo 8 linika urhulumente wesizwe igunya elipheleleyo lokuhlawula imali nokulawula ixabiso layo. Amazwe awavumelekanga ngokupheleleyo ekuhlawuleni imali yawo okanye ekukhupheni iindleko zetyala, ukuqinisekisa inkqubo yemali yesizwe efanayo.
  • Ukuqulunqa Imicimbi Yamazwe Nakubhengeza Imfazwe: Urhulumente wesizwe ulawula ulwalamano lwezobuzwe, izivumelwano zemiqondiso (ngemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), kwaye unamandla apheleleyo okuvakalisa imfazwe. Amazwe akanakungena nasiphi na isivumelwano, umdibaniso, okanye ukudibana, okanye angakwazi ukubandakanyeka kwimfazwe ngaphandle kokuba ahlaselwe okanye kwingozi esondeleyo efuna isenzo esikhawulezileyo.
  • I-ofisi yeposi efundisayo kunye neeNdlela zePosi: IPost Claus yenza ukuba iNgqungquthela yesizwe ikwazi ukwenza inkqubo yeposi yesizwe, eye yanceda unxibelelwano norhwebo kwimigca karhulumente. Ngelixesha izithwali zabucala ngoku zikhuphisana, urhulumente worhulumente ugcina igunya lokulawula phezu kothungelwano lweposi.
  • Iprojekthi yokhuselo lwesizwe: iBhunga linamandla okunyusa nokuxhasa imikhosi, ukunikezela nokugcina umkhosi wamanzi, kwaye yenza imithetho yokulawula imikhosi exhobileyo. Oku kuquka igunya lokubiza amajoni ukuba aphumeze imithetho kazwelonke, athintele ukuhlasela, kwaye agxothe ukuhlasela.
  • Imithetho efunekayo nefanelekileyo: Imfuneko kunye nemomo ka-Ellastic Claus, ikwabizwa ngokuba ngu-Ellastic Clause, inika iBhunga amandla "yenze yonke imithetho ezakuba yimfuneko kwaye ifaneleke ekuphumezeni amagunya angaphezulu." Eli binzana liye laba ngumthombo wolwandiso olubalulekileyo lwesizwe, ivumela iBhunga ukuba lidlulise imithetho enxulumene ngokufanelekileyo namandla alo adwelisweyo nokuba akadweli kakuhle.

Ukongeza kula magunya owiso-mthetho, isebe eliphetheyo liphumeza imithetho karhulumente, liqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, lisebenze njengentloko-ntloko yomkhosi. Ijaji yesizwe ichaza umthetho wesizwe kwaye icombulule iimpikiswano ezivela phantsi komGaqo-siseko nemimiselo yorhulumente.

Amandla Agciniweyo Oorhulumente Bakarhulumente

Phantsi koMgaqo-siseko weSihlaziyo weshumi, "Amagunya anganikwanga iUnited States, okanye angavunyelwanga nguwo, agcinwe eUnited States ngokulandelelanayo, okanye kubantu." Lo mgaqo wamandla uthetha ukuba unegunya elibanzi kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni. La magunya agciniweyo asoloko ebizwa ngokuba "ngamandla alawulayo," aquka amandla okuqulunqa imvume empilo, ukhuseleko, intlalo-ntle, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yabantu.

  • Imfundo: Ama-odolo anomthwalo ophambili wokuseka nokusebenza izikolo zikawonke-wonke, ukuseka, ukugunyazisa abafundisi- ntsapho, nokulawula izikolo zobuqu nezeqeshi. Ngelixesha urhulumente wengingqi enika inkxaso-mali nemfuno zesiseko ngemithetho efana ne-EverseStudents Fraevect, amazwelo agcina ulawulo oluqinileyo kwinkqubo yemfundo.
  • Isakhiwo kunye nezakhiwo: amazwe ajonge ukwakhiwa nokugcinwa kweendlela zikarhulumente, iindlela, iibhulorho, namazibuko enqanawa. Akwalawula nezithuthi ezihambayo, kuquka iziporo zoololiwe nezinokusetyenziswa ezisebenza kumda worhulumente.
  • Unyango lwezigulana kunye nempilo yoluntu: Amazwe alawula izibhedlele, iingcali zezonyango zelayisensi, kwaye anika iinkqubo zonyango lukawonke-wonke ezifana noMedicaid ngokusebenzisana norhulumente wezwe. Kwakhona anegunya lokunyanzela amanyathelo okuhlalisa abanye kunye nemigaqo yempilo neyokhuseleko.
  • Umthetho wase-Ingingqini yoKhuseleko noKhuseleko loLuntu: Ama-odoli agcina amapolisa awo (umz., ukujikeleza koohola bendlela) kwaye anike amagunya angakumbi kwiphondo, kumasebe kamasipala, nakumasebe asekuhlaleni. Amazwe asebenzisa iinkqubo zawo zokulungisa kunye nokulawula imipu kwimida yawo, ephantsi kwemiqathango karhulumente.
  • Usapho kunye neNkcubeko zasekhaya: Umtshato, uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ilifa, neminye imicimbi yentsapho ngokuyintloko ilawulwa ngumthetho wesizwe. Oku kuphumela ekungqubaniseni phakathi kwamazwe malunga nobudala bomtshato, izicwangciso zoqhawulo-mtshato, kunye nokuxhasa ukugcinwa kwabantwana.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Iproperthi kunye noMthetho oququzelelayo: Amazwe achaza amalungelo empahla, ulawulo lwentengiso yempahla, kunye nokuseka isakhiwo esisemthethweni sezivumelwano. Iimpikiswano ezininzi zempahla, imiba yemali yengingqi, kunye nezivumelwano zezoshishino zithenjiswa kwiinkundla zelizwe phantsi komthetho worhulumente.
  • UMthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho ongundoqo: Uninzi lwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho lugwetywa phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Ama-odoli achaza ulwaphulo-mthetho, izigwebo, nokusebenzisa ezawo iinkonqulo neentolongo. Ulwaphulo-mthetho olumanyeneyo lulinganiselwe kwityala elibandakanya iminqweno yorhulumente, njengolwaphulo-mthetho olubandakanya iintsebenziswano, ukurhwebeshelwa kweziyobisi, ubugrogrisi, okanye ukwaphulwa kwemithetho karhulumente.

Amandla akhoyo Ahlulwa ngawo omabini Amanqanam

Urhulumente norhulumente basoloko besebenzisa igunya ngaxeshanye kwimimandla efanayo yezomgaqo-nkqubo, ingcamango eyaziwa njengamagunya akhoyo. La mandla ahlukeneyo ayavumela intsebenziswano kodwa anokukhokelela kwinkxwaleko kunye neempikiswano zokucinezela. Amandla amakhulu akhoyo aquka:

  • Ukuhlawula: Bobabini oorhulumente borhulumente borhulumente (kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni) bangayinyanzela irhafu kwingeniso, kwimpahla, kwintengiso, nakweminye imisebenzi yezoqoqosho. Ngoxa urhulumente wesizwe engenako ukuhlawula irhafu, omabini amanqanaba adla ngokukhuphisana ngengeniso kwisiseko esinye somhlawuli werhafu.
  • Imali ebotshelelweyo: Urhulumente wengingqi unika amaqhina oThinte kunye nezinye izixhobo zamatyala, lo gama urhulumente ekhupha amaqhina emali kwimisebenzi yekomkhulu enjengezikolo, oohola bendlela, nezakhiwo zikawonke-wonke. Umgangatho ngamnye unerejista yawo yokuthenga ngetyala kwaye uboleka igunya, ngokomGaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho.
  • Inkundla enika ingqwalaselo: Ijaji yengingqi iquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo, iinkundla zesiphatho, neenkundla zesithili. Iinkqubo zenkundla zeli lizwe zisebenza ngokuhambelana nenkqubo karhulumente, neenkundla zazo zokuvavanya, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo. Zombini ezi nkqubo zinegunya kwiintlobo ezithile zamatyala, kwaye amanye amatyala asenokubhenwa kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ukuya kwi-U.S. Iinkundla eziPhakathi-mthetho ukuba kukho ityala elibandakanyekileyo.
  • [[NKQUBO:0] Ulawulo lokhetho: Amazwe anika unyulo lwee-ofisi zikarhulumente ne-ovential, amisela iiyure kunye neendawo, amisele iinkqubo zokuvota, kwaye amisele iinkqubo zokubhalisa. Noko ke, urhulumente wengingqi unokumisela iimfuno zomGaqo-siseko, ezifana noMthetho weSivumelwano soKhuselo-Mthethweni okhusela ucalucalulo lohlanga, kwaye amisele iimini ezifanayo zonyulo lwezwelo.
  • Ukwakha izibonelelo: omabini amaqondo emali karhulumente kunye nokwakha imisebenzi yesiseko somsebenzi. Umzekelo, urhulumente wezwe unika izibonelelo ngeenkqubo ezifana ne-Highway Trust Fund, ngelixa urhulumente enika ucwangciso, ukwakha, nokugcina iindlela. Ngokufanayo, imali karhulumente neyorhulumente isoloko idityaniswa kwiprojekthi zamanzi, iinqwelo-ntakathi, kunye neenkqubo zokuthutha zikawonke-wonke.
  • IiBhanki eziNcedileyo kunye namaKhomishoni: Bobabini urhulumente worhulumente (ngeOfisi yeKhonkcotha ye-Intelligence) kwaye uchaza iibhanki zomqeshi-mali kunye namaqhina okubophelela amatyala. Amaqumrhu aqeshwa phantsi komthetho karhulumente, ngokufuthi uDelaware, kodwa umthetho worhulumente ulawula ityala, i-antigride, kunye nemisebenzi yezoshishino.

Imida Kumandla Omanyano

UmGaqo-siseko ubeka iingqikelelo ezininzi kwigunya lesizwe ukukhusela indima yezorhulumente nokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Le miqathango iquka:

Imfundiso Enamandla

Urhulumente wesizwe akanakwenza ngaphandle kokuba ukhomba kugunyaziso lwegunya. Lo mgaqo wagxininiswa kwiimeko ezifana neUnited States v. Lopez (1995], apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho othintelayo imipu ekufuphi nezikolo, ilawula ukuba umsebenzi awukhange uchaphazele urhwebo lwezoshishino lwezikolo. Kutshanje, NFIB v. Sebelius (202]), iNCourtsloreareant isithi isebenzisa amandla karhulumente ngokuthintela amandla karhulumente okusebenza kwimeko yemali yeMediad kulwando lwemali, ukuqinisekisa imida yemiqathango yeQumrhu.

Amalungelo karhulumente noMthetho weshumi

IsiHlanzi soMphetho-mthetho weshumi elinesiThathu sisebenza njengesikhumbuzi somGaqo-siseko sokuba amagunya anganikwanga oorhulumente besizwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yacela oku kupheliswa kwemithetho karhulumente ephelisa iinkqubo zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente okanye ifuna amagosa karhulumente ukuba anyanzelise iinkqubo zolawulo lwamagunya, njengoko kuboniswe ku printz v. United States [1997]]

IBhili yamaLungelo neNjongo yoMgaqo-nkqubo

IBhili yamaLungelo yaqala ukusebenza kurhulumente wesizwe, njengoko iqinisekisiwe ku Barron v. Baltimore (1833). Ngelixesha uninzi lwamalungiselelo luye lwafakwa nxamnye namaphondo ngenyanga ye-145th Amendmendment, umlinganiselo wangaphambili uhlala ubalulekile. Imithetho yomanyano ephazamisa amalungelo afana nokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, ukuqhelisa konqulo, okanye inkqubo efanelekileyo inokubethwa yi-judiary kumandla okuhlola okugweba amiselwe Marbury v.

Imida Engokwengqiqo: Inkqubo Yokulungiswa Nokulawulwa

Ukuphakamisa umGaqo-siseko kufuna ukuvota okuphezulu kwiBhunga kunye nokwenziwa kwemiqathango ngamaphondo amathathu anesine, okwenza kube nzima kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ukuba andise amandla akhe ngaphandle kokuphinda kulandelelwe. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba utshintsho olungundoqo kulungelelwano lorhulumente lufuna ukulungelelana okubanzi phakathi kwamazwe ngokwawo.

Imida Kumandla Karhulumente

Igunya likarhulumente liphantsi kwemiqathango ebalulekileyo yomgaqo-siseko elungiselelwe ukugcina umanyano lwesizwe kwimimandla engundoqo nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Imiqathango engundoqo iquka:

UClaus Oneengcungela

Inqaku le- VI livakalisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko, imithetho karhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Imithetho karhulumente engqubana nomthetho karhulumente ayisebenzi phantsi kwemfundiso yokukhulula. Oku kusebenza nokuba umthetho wesizwe ukhulula umgaqo wesizwe ngokungqalileyo (ukucinezelwa) okanye xa umthetho wesizwe uqulathe ibala elicokisekileyo kangangokuba umthetho wesizwe awuvumelani (ucandelwe kwangaphambili). Umzekelo, umthetho worhulumente wokufuduka udelela uzama ukumisela urhulumente ukufuduka, njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekiswe ku Arizona v. United States

Urhwebo Olunamandla UCelas

Kwanaxa iBhunga lingathathi nxaxheba, imida yeChwepheshe uClaus ichaza ukumisela imithetho ecalula okanye engafanelekanga ngokuchasene nomthwalo phakathi kwelizwe. Le misebenzi "emant" iyayithintela ukuxhasa izilangazelelo zezoqoqosho ezisentla ngaphandle kokhuphiswano lwamazwe. Umzekelo, urhulumente akanakunyanzela ukuba i-staff kurhwebo lwempahla evela kwelinye ilizwe okanye athintele ukurhwebelana kwezinto ezithile ngaphandle kobulungisa obunyanzelisayo basekuhlaleni.

Ingxelo yamalungelo

NgeSindululo seshumi elinesine soMgqibelo i-Access Claus, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe iye yawasebenzisa amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Oku kuthetha ukuba amatyala amele ahlonele inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo, ilungelo lokulwa nophando olungekho ngqiqweni, namanye amalungelo asisiseko. Imithetho karhulumente ephula la malungelo inokucelw ’ umngeni kwiinkundla zorhulumente nezezikonganiso.

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Amazwe akanakukhanyela namnye umntu onegunya lokukhusela imithetho efanayo (iMimiselo yeThupha). Oku kuyayithintela imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho esekelwe kuhlanga, ubufanasini, okanye kwezinye izigqeba ezirhanelekayo. Ama-odolo kufuneka anikele inkqubo efanelekileyo phambi kokuba ahluthe umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Le miqathango ilawula imigaqo yorhulumente enjengenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle, kunye nemisebenzi kawonke-wonke.

Iindleko nomgaqo-nkqubo wasemzini

Amazwe akanakungena kwizivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe, avakalise ukuba imfazwe, imali, okanye abandakanyeke kunxibelelwano lwamazwe angaphandle.

Ukulungelelana Okutshintshayo Komanyano Namagunya Karhulumente

Umlinganiselo ophakathi kwegunya likarhulumente nelorhulumente awuzange uhlale uminyene. Ukutyhubela imbali yaseMerika, ulungelelwano luye lwaguquka ngenxa yeengxaki zezoqoqosho, iimfazwe, imibutho yentlalo, neenkcazelo ezingokwasemthethweni.

Isenzo Esitsha Nokwanda Kwegunya Lomkhosi

Ngexesha loHlobeko olukhulu, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevel's New Deal yeenkqubo zandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukungenelela kwesizwe kwezoqoqosho. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqala yabetha uninzi lwale nkqubo kodwa kamva yamkela ukuchazwa okubanzi kweCommerce Claus NLB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. [1977]) kunye [[FLT] Wickard v. Filburn [[FLT:] [192]. [1942].] Oku kwavumela iB. Oku kwavumela iBhunganelo ukuba ilawule nayiphi nayiphi na impembelelo ephakathi kwezentengiso, nokuba ikwindalo.

IXesha lamaLungelo aBami kunye noMbutho

ISivumelwano saMalungelo esingu-1944 sasebenzisa igunya leNkundla lezorhwebo kunye noMphetho-Mdathi weshumi elinesine ukunqanda ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizindlu zoluntu nasemsebenzini. lungaphulaphuli umkhosi weAtlanta Motel v. United States (1964]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa umthetho, iqiqalw'u ukuba ucalucalu-calulo luchaphazele urhwebo lwamazwe. Eli xesha laphawula incopho lwamandla aphezulu karhulumente ukunyanzelela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko ngokuchasene norhulumente kunye nabadlali basekuhlaleni.

Inkundla Yowiso-mthetho NeNkundla Yomanyano

Ukuqala koo1990, iNkundla ePhakamileyo phantsi kweJaji enkulu uWilliam Rehnquist yabeka imida emitsha kumandla orhulumente. Izigqibo ezifana [[FLT: 0] United States v. Lopez (1995], Printz v. United States (1997), kunye United States v. Morrison[FL:5]) ubuchule beBhunga bokulawula umsebenzi ongengoqoqosho kunye nolawulo. Le "New Federalism" yaqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente kufuneka ahlonele ulawulo kunye nemiqathango yamandla ahlukeneyo.

Utyando lwempilo, iMajuana kunye nolokusuba

Iingxoxo zale mihla eziphathelele uburhulumente ziyaqhubeka kwimimandla enjengezezonyango (igunya loluntu, ulwandiso lweMedicaid), ukwenziwa komsayini (ukwayama phakathi kwemithetho karhulumente nomthetho karhulumente), kunye nokufuduka (imithetho yengcwele echasene nomthetho karhulumente). Ezi mpikiswano zibonisa ukuxinezeleka okuqhubekayo phakathi kwe-socation kunye ne-oyena mbuso unegunya eliphakamileyo, kunye neenkundla zidla ngokucela ukuchaza imida ecacileyo yegunya ngalinye.

Isiphelo: Umsebenzi Onamandla Nowokuhlala Uhleli

Ulwahlulo lwamagunya phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente luyimbombo yoyilo lomgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Umgangatho ngamnye uqhelisela ngokwahlukileyo uludwe okanye amagunya agcinekileyo, ukwabelana ngegunya elikhoyo kwimimandla emininzi, kwaye usebenza phantsi kwemiqathango ebalulekileyo yomgaqo-siseko. Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unokuyisingatha imingeni yesizwe neyezizwe ngelinye ngexesha ulondoloza igunya lorhulumente kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni echaphazela ubomi babemi bemihla ngemihla. Ukuqonda oko umgangatho ngamnye unokukwenza kwaye ungakwazi ukukwenza, akuyo nje imfundo yemfundo nje kuphela efundekayo kwidemokhrasi kwaye kubalulekile ukuxabisa isakhiwo solawulo esintsonkothile kodwa esinelisayo eUnited States. Njengoko imbali ibonisa, ukulungele ukuma kolawulo lwasekuhlaleni kuya kuqhubeka kuchaphazela ubomi basekuhlaleni, kodwa imigaqo-rhulumente ihlala ifanelekile njengoko kusebenza namhlanje xa umGastistia.

[[UMTL_HAWU] Izibonelelo:[[UMKCU]