Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya yimfundiso esisiseko yolawulo-demokhrasi lwale mihla, elungiselelwe ukusasaza igunya lorhulumente kumazwe azimeleyo kwaye ithintele ukuxinezeleka kwamandla nakwesiphi na isiko. Nangona ingcamango isoloko ifundiswa kwiiklasi zoluntu, ukusetyenziswa kwayo kuyahluka ngokuphawulekayo kwiinkqubo zobupolitika. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela ukwahlula amagunya esebenza ngayo kumongo wokoqobo wehlabathi, ukuzoba nemizekelo epheleleyo kumazwe amaninzi. Ngokuhlola zombini intelekelelo yentelekelelo kunye nenyaniso ephilayo yee-e-echecksss, sinokuyiqonda kakuhle indlela lo mgaqo okhusela ngayo inkululeko, unceda ukuphendula, kwaye maxa wambi ubangela uqhushululu kulawulo. Imizekelo elandela ingeyo kuphela imizekelo engabonisi impumelelo kulawulo lwamazwe amaninzi ahlukeneyo kodwa kwanemingeni olusayo olujongeneyo ulawulo lwe-demodemodemodemoc.

Isiseko Sokwahlukana Kwamandla

Imvelaphi yokwahlulwa kwamagunya ifikelela kwimisebenzi kaJohn Locke kwaye, ngokubalaseleyo, iBaron de Montesquieu. Kulo 1748 inkcazo Umoya woMthetho [, Montesquie waphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezopolitiko ifuna ukuba akukho mntu okanye iqela elisebenzisa yonke imisebenzi emithathu karhulumente, ukwenza imithetho, ukuyiphumeza, nokugweba ukusebenza kwayo. Waphawula ukuba “xa i-winomthetho kunye namandla aphezulu edibene nomntu omnye, okanye kwisiqu esinye sejaji, akunakubakho nkululeko. Oku kuphembelela ngokunzulu ukuchasana kweminye inkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, ingakumbi uJames Maconson, ocebisileyo ekufuneni kwawo izilumkiso. [Fuld.][5]

Imodeli yamandulo yahlula urhulumente ngamasebe amathathu: i-jugisidity [ukwenza umthetho], i] iyahlula. Ulwahlulo, nokokuba, iyahluka. Kwinkqubo yomongameli efana neUnited States, amasebe ahluke ngokungqongqo, ngemiqathango emiselweyo kunye negunya lonyuselo. Iinkqubo ezifana noBukumkani base-Indiya, ulawulo olufana nolo mbuso, ulawulo lwe-ograckethe.

Izixhobo Zokusebenzisa Izixhobo Zokusebenza: Iingqikelelo Nolungelelwano

Iingqikelelo kunye nolungelelwaniso zizixhobo ezisebenzayo ezenza ukwahlukana kwamandla kuphumelele. Ezi nkqubo zivumela isebe ngalinye ukuba lijonge, libeke umda, kwaye, ukuba kuyimfuneko, liziyeke ezinye izenzo ezithatyathwe zezinye. Imizekelo yomzekelo iquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuvavanya okusemthethweni kumphathi: Amandla okuvumela uqingqo-mali, ukuqinisekisa amadinga, ukuva, nokungachazi okanye ukususa amagosa.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Uvavanyo olusebenzayo kwindlu yowiso-mthetho: Iveto igunya lomthetho, ukukwazi ukubiza iintlanganiso ezikhethekileyo, negunya lokukhupha imiyalelo yesebe eliphetheyo ethwala amandla omthetho kwimida yomGaqo-siseko.
  • Uvavanyo lwe-JUdicicial kwimiba yomibini: Amandla okuhlola ukugweba ukuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingekho semthethweni, kwakunye negunya lokuchaza imimiselo kunye nokucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamasebe.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Uvavanyo lwemithetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu kwijaji: Amandla okumisela ubungakanani negunya leenkundla, ukuqinisekisa okanye ukumisela iijaji, kunye (kwezinye iinkqubo) nabagwebi abachaphazelekayo ngenxa yehambo engafanelekanga.

Ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo kwiimeko ezithile zesizwe kutyhila amandla nobuchule bokwahlula amagunya njengemfundiso ephilayo.

Imizekelo yobomi bokwenene yokwahlukana kwamandla

IUnited States: Imodeli enguMongameli kunye noNondyebo weRobustt

IUnited States ingumzekelo oyintloko wenkqubo yamandla ahlukeneyo. Inqaku I lezahlulo zomthetho eziphezulu kwiBhunga lowiso-mthetho; Icandelo II lineembawuti zolawulo kuMongameli onyuliweyo ngokuzimeleyo; kunye neQumrhu III lezakhono zokugweba kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo neenkundla eziphantsi ezimiselwe yiBhunga. Isebe ngalinye linamandla ahlukeneyo noxanduva oluneembopheleleko ezigqithisileyo oludala imodeli enamandla.

Umzekeliso ocacileyo yinkqubo [ yokwandiswa. Indlu yabameli ibamba ekuphela kwegunya lokukhupha (ukuchasa) amagosa esizwe, kuquka uMongameli, kuba “Isizathu, isifumbathiso, okanye ezinye iiCrimes kunye neMisdemears.” Indlu yendlu iqhuba ukuvavanya kwaye, ngesibini sesithathu, iyakwazi ukuvota, iyakwazi ukubopha nokususa igosa. Eli lungiselelo liqinisekisa ukuba akukho gumbi elinye elinokucima igumbi ekuhlaleni ngalo, kwaye amagumbi afanele asebenze, kwaye isebe eliphetheyo alikwazi ukuphazamisa. Umzekelo womzekelo obalulekileyo ngu [[FLT] [FLT] [2], ucandomciso olugunyazelelweyo, olunyulweyo lwetyala [FFFFoct3], lungasungulwe kwimeko [Foctive] [5] [5] [5] [5] i-FTrombutho].[5] i-ectriev] igoolmes premit. isalal engqine.

Kutshanje, ukusetyenziswa kwemiyalelo yokunqumla [[FLT: 0] kuvavanye imida yamandla kamongameli. Ngelixesha uMongameli enokuthi ngqo isebe lesizwe ukuze kuzalisekiswe iinkqubo, iinkundla ngamanye amaxesha zivale imiyalelo egqitha igunya lomthetho okanye ephula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, ulutsha olusemoyeni olusemgceni & Tube. v. Satyer [1952], iNkundlalo ePhakamileyo iTrum ithe izigaxa-agies zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea, ilawula ukuba uMongameli ubhukuze igunya lomthetho. Iimeko ezinjalo zibonisa ukuba nomphathi-mgaqo-mganga-mgaqo-mganga uphantsi wemithetho-siseko somthetho.

UBukumkani Obumanyeneyo: IFusion eneeWesterion Judiciary ezizimeleyo

The United Kingdom operates without a codified constitution but nonetheless maintains a functional separation of powers through conventions, statutes, and institutional evolution. The doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty means that the legislature—the Crown-in-Parliament—is the supreme legal authority. However, the executive (the Prime Minister and Cabinet) is drawn from and accountable to the House of Commons, creating a fusion of powers that contrasts sharply with the American model.

Phezu kwalo nje olu hlomelo, lukhona. Indlu yaBalawuli, nangona imiselwe kakhulu, ihlola kunye nomthetho wokulungisa, ukulibazisela amatyala ijongeka njengengalunganga. INkundla yeNkundla ePhakathi yeUnited Kingdom, emiselwe ngo-2009, ithabathel' indawo yoMthetho Words kwaye ngoku ihlala ngokuzimeleyo kwiPalamente. Iyakwazi ukuvakalisa izenzo zomphathi onegunya (ngokuhlola ngokwekomiti) kwaye ayikwazi ukuchaza imithetho engundoqo, kodwa ayinakuwuphula umthetho oyintloko (`a Relavenent'' kulawulo lolawulo. Noko ke, uMthetho wamaLungelo woluntu owe-UK kuMalungu e-1998 kunye nobulungu beNgqungqungquthelane yaseYurophu kwiiNkundla ye-Ofisi e-okquququlueanciaaaaaaia amalungelo eentloko.

Uvavanyo lwakutshanje lokwahlulwa ngowe-2019 xa iNkundla Ephakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba icebiso leNkulumbuso uBoris Johnson lokukhupha imvume (ukunyusa) iPalamente kangangeeveki ezintlanu lalingekho mthethweni ngenxa yokuba laphazamisa amandla owiso-mthetho okugcina urhulumente ephendule. Umgwebo odibeneyo R [Miller]R v. Umphathiswa weNkulumbuso waqinisekisa ukuba kwanamandla aphezulu aphantsi kwemiqathango esemthethweni kunye nolawulo lomthetho.

IRiphabliki Yesihlanu YaseFransi: Impiko Enamandla

UMgaqo-siseko waseFransi ka1958 wadala inkqubo edibanisa uMongameli onyuliweyo ngqo noMphathi-mikhosi kunye nePalamente. UMongameli umisela uMphathi-mikhosi Oyintloko, ulawula kwiBhunga labaPhathiswa, kwaye angayicima iNdibano yesiZwe. Noko ke, iPalamente (Ingqungquthela yeSizwe neNtlanganiso) yenza imithetho kwaye iyakwazi ukugxeka urhulumente ngokuvota kungekho ntembelo.

IBhunga leNkqutyana yeNkqutyana yeNtshona Koloni lisebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo (iSigqeba somGaqo-siseko). Ihlola imithetho phambi kokwamkelwa kwemithetho ukuqinisekisa ukuthobela umGaqo-siseko, kwaye ukususela ngowama- 2008, abemi bangaphakamisa imibuzo yomgaqo-siseko (umbuzo ophambili de compralitariantité) ngexesha lokucaciswa, ivumela iBhunga ukuba livavanye ukufaneleka komgaqo-siseko wemithetho esele isebenza. Le nkqubo inika icandelo elibalulekileyo ekuhloleni umthetho-graficio-mthetho-siseko kunye namandla okulawula.

Ngexesha “lokwakhiwa,” xa iqela loMongameli lingayilawuli iNdibano, ulwahlulo lwanda: uMongameli kufuneka amisele uMphathi-mikhosi oyintloko kuxhathiso oluninzi, nto leyo ekhokelela kumphathi-mandla owahluleleneyo. Oku kwenzeka izihlandlo ezithathu phakathi kowe-1986 nowama-2002, ebonisa indlela ukwenziwa kwequmrhu okunyanzela amandla kwanakwinkqubo eyenzelwe ukhokelo olunamandla.

IFederal Republic yaseJamani: Inkqubo YePalamente EneeNjongo Ezinamandla Zokweyisa Isigwebo

ISisike soMthetho (Grundgesetz) emisa inkqubo yepalamente ehlolwa ngamandla, ingakumbi ngeBoundestag iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeFederal (IBoundesfesfessédgericht). ICancellell (intloko karhulumente) inyulwe yi-Bundestag kwaye inokususwa kuphela ngevote yokwahlula ukungabi nantembelo/ithetha ukuba utshintsho kufuneka lukhethwe ngexesha elinye, kuthintele ukurhoxiswa okulula.

INkundla yezomGaqo-siseko inamagunya aphangaleleyo: ingawisa umthetho, ihlole izenzo zolawulo, ize isombulule iimbambano phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente. Iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo asisiseko, njengakwisigqibo soMgaqo-nkqubo woTshato-manani owenziwe ngo19983 owamisela ilungelo lokuzimisela ulwazi. Ukuzimela kweNkundla kuqiniswa sisibakala sokuba abagwebi banyulwa yiPalamente ngenxa yeemeko ezingahlaziyiyo zeminyaka eli-12, ezikhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika.

Olunye uvavanyo [[NTL:0] Boundesrat, indlu ephezulu emele amazwe (Länder), emele ivumele umthetho ochaphazela izilangazelelo zikarhulumente. Oku kwenza uvavanyo lwelizwe kurhulumente worhulumente wezwe kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba amagunya anelizwi kwinkqubo yesizwe, ukongeza omnye umaleko kulwahlulo lwamagunya.

IIndiya: Idemokhrasi yePalamente ephethe iMithetho yezeMithetho

UMgaqo-siseko waseIndiya udala inkqubo yepalamente efana neyase-UK, kodwa ikho ngomgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo, isakhiwo sorhulumente, kunye nejaji ezimeleyo enikwe amandla uphengululo olusemthethweni . INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseIndiya ingakwazi ukubetha imithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko, kwaye ivelise imfundiso yesiseko se-, ethintela iPalamente ekuphenduleni umGaqo-siseko ngeendlela ezitshabalalisa isiseko wayo.

Ityala eliphawulayo lingu [[FLT: 0] Kesavanda Bharati v. Urhulumente waseKerala (1973]), apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba ngoxa iPalamente inamandla amakhulu, ayinakutshintsha “isakhiwo sebhastiki” somGaqo-siseko, kuquka ukwahlulwa kwamagunya ngokwawo. Esi sigqibo sihlola nasiphi na isigqibo sikarhulumente sexesha elizayo ukuzama ukugxininisa amandla ngokupheliswa komgaqo-siseko. Kutshanje, ngo- 2015, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yabetha phantsi kweKhomishini ye-mthetho yeSizwe yoLawulo i-Agamfamente, ibuyisela inkqubo ye-collegium yokumiselwa kwejaji ekwa kuqulukileyo kunye nokuqinisekisa ukuzimela ngokwamganga kwe-mthetho.

Umzekelo wamaIndiya ubonisa ukuba kwanakwinkqubo apho umphathi ayalela uninzi lowiso-mthetho, ijaji engqongqo inokugcina ulungelelwano lwamandla.

Ucelomngeni Lokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ngoxa ukwahlukana kwamagunya kuyilelwe ukuthintela ubundlobongela, ijongene nocelomngeni oluzingisileyo kulawulo lwale mihla:

  • Izenzo zophando: iiNkulumbuso okanye abaPhathiswa abaPhathiswa abaphambili bangasebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo, amandla ongxamiseko, okanye izenzo ezingokwamnye owexesha elinye ukudlula kwinkcazo yomthetho. Ulwandiso lwezwe lolawulo lukwagxininisa kwigunya lokwenza umthetho kumaqumrhu aphetheyo, lufinyeza umgca phakathi kokwenza umthetho nokuthobela.
  • [[NTL:0] Imithetho esemthethweni: Ngamanye amaxesha iiPalamente zinika abalawuli ubulumko obuphangaleleyo, zinciphisa indima yazo yokuvelela. Le “ngxaki yokunyaniseka” inciphisa uvavanyo kwaye iyakwazi ukuvumela ulawulo oluphezulu.
  • Inkundla ejongwe ngokwezemali: isenokutyholwa ngokugweba xa izama ukwenza inkqubo, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezifana nemida enyuliweyo, amalungelo entlalo, okanye ukhuseleko lwesizwe. Abahlalutyi baphikisa oku kuthatha indawo yokukhetha umthetho kunye nokukhetha okukhethiweyo kwemithetho.
  • Gridlock kunye nobubanzi: Xa amasebe elawulwa ngamaqela aphikisanayo, ii-checks zingajika zibe zithintelo, zithintele umthetho ofunekayo okanye imvume yoqingqo-mali. Urhulumente wase-U.S. uvala imizekelo yendlela ukungquzulwano okunokuphazamisa ngayo ulawulo.
  • ukungenelela kwemithetho kwicandelo lejaji: izindululo zeNkundla ezinika izisongelo, izisongelo kuqingqo-mali lwezomthetho, kunye nokutyunjwa kweejaji ezinyanisekileyo ngokweengqiqo kungakujongela phantsi ukuzimela geqe, njengoko kubonakala kumaxesha akutshanje kumazwe afana nePoland neHungary.

Ezi ngxaki zingqina ukuba ukwahlukana kwamagunya akuzibulali; kufuna amaziko omeleleyo, isithethe somgaqo - siseko, nokuthenjiswa kwabemi ukuze kusebenze ngokunempumelelo.

Isiphelo

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kusengumgaqo obalulekileyo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi, kodwa kukude nendlela enye elinganayo. Imizekelo yobomi bokwenyaniso esuka eUnited States, eUnited Kingdom, eFransi, eJamani, naseIndiya ibonisa ukuba imigaqo-siseko eyahlukeneyo ilawula amandla okulingana ngeendlela ezingaqhelekanga, ngokugxininisa ulwahlulo oluthe nkqo (ulawulo loburhulumente), ezinye iingqini ezithe tyaba phakathi kwamasebe. Inkqubo nganye ineempawu ezinamandla kunye nee-vravili, kodwa umsonto oqhelekileyo nguwo omele ungathintelwa. Njengoko iDemocrafesisko entsha ijongenee nengcinezelo ephezulu yokuhlola amanani ocuthe ngqo, kufuneka kulondolo nokulungisa amandla aqhubekeka ngakumbi. Ukuqonda ezi zinto akufuneki kubafundi nakuwo wonke awona mgangatho womthetho kodwa kuxhomekeke kumthetho womthetho womthetho.

Ukuphinda ufundeke ngokubhekele phaya: U.S. , Inkundla yoMgaqo-siseko weJamani , UK INkundla ePhakamileyo, kunye iConstitution yeFransi (uguqulelo lwesiNgesi).