Ulwalamano phakathi kwesizwe namagunya orhulumente alawulayo lwakha ithambeka lenkqubo yezobupolitika yaseMelika. Oku kunamandla, okuchazwa ngumGaqo-siseko neenkulungwane zoqheliselo lwezopolitiko, kuyinto engaqhelekanga. Xa urhulumente kunye namagunya orhulumente edibana kunye, kudla ngokukhokelela kubuntsonkothile, iqhina lendlela yokudala ngamanye amaxesha, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha izisombululo. Ukuqonda oku kudibana kwemijaqe-mfa yeWashington, D.C., kudibana nolawulo lwamacandelo angama-50, .

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko Samandla Agqithiseleyo

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. udala inkqubo yolawulo olwahlulweyo olwaziwayo njengolawulo lorhulumente. Kunokuba banike igunya elisembindini okanye balithumele ngokupheleleyo kumazwe, abaseki bayila inkqubo exubeneyo. Abaquluneli babumba inkqubo ka-Celasiste [ (umthetho ka-IV, u-Claus 2) uvakalisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe ngu-"Umthetho wezwe,"ubophelela bonke abagwebi belizwe phezu kwayo nayiphi na imithetho echasene nomthetho okanye imithetho. Ngokuphikisanayo, [[FLT:]]] [[FLTLT:3]]] ulawulo kumazwe (okanye abantu) nawu wonke) ongagunya-othe ngqo kwi-omGwase-omatilo-omGwase-omati.

Oku kucaca okungumGaqo-siseko kwayinqinwa ngabom. Ivumela ububhedu, kodwa ikwaqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wephondo unamagunya adwelisweyo, kodwa uyakwazi ukungqubana. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-1819 linengqiqo ebanzi yokuba zithwale ngokugqitha kwe-Classias. Inkundla i-Crucillech v. yaqinisa le nyaniso. IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkuNkuNkundla, iqinisekisa ukuba nangona urhulumente urhulumente ephethe amagunya adweliswe kuphela, unengqiqo ebanzi yokuba athwale ngokubhekiselele ekuthini afanele aqhutywe amandla okutshabalalisa. Inkundla yemithetho yesizwe ayimiselayo inyathelo elinye elifanelekileyo.

UMgaqo-siseko ukwamisa amagunya akhoyo].

Indlela Olawulwa Ngayo: Ukhukuliso, Iintaka, Neempumlo

Ukuqonda xa urhulumente kunye namagunya alawula uthungelwano olungundoqo lufuna ujongo kwisiseko esilawula uthungelwano lwabo. Esona sixhobo sithe ngqo singu isiphelo . Phantsi kweSuprematy Claus, umthetho wesizwe ungakhulula umthetho wesizwe ngeendlela ezintathu eziphambili: ukukhupha ukhutshiso (iChontrever ichaza injongo yayo yokulawula umthetho wesizwe), intsingiselo yokukhulula (umthetho owenziwe ngomthetho owenziwe ngomthetho) obanzi kangangokuba ubanzi kangangokuba uyakwazi ukumelana nomthetho womthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni ongumthetho owendalo, wenze ukuvumelana kwawo omabini okungenakufikeleleka.

Isenzo esinamandla kodwa esinempumelelo kakhulu ngulo ulawulo olukhoyo. Oku kukuthi "umatshini wokusebenza nokuncamathela". Urhulumente wengingqi unika inkxaso ebalulekileyo yemali (_ohola, imfundo, okanye unyango) yemeko ethi ihambelane nemigangatho ethile karhulumente. Umzekelo wesithintelo [[FLT:] uDatalk v. Dole [1987]) ukulondoloza amandla eMbutho okugoxaba intyelela intlawulo lwemali yemijelokazi ngaphandle kokuba ithelise iminyaka yawo esemthethweni yokusela ukuya ku 21.

Isixhobo sesithathu, esixhaphakileyo ngakumbi yi- i-federal uncumor. I-wavers ivumela isebe eliphetheyo lezwe ukuba linike umvano kwiimfuno ezisesikweni zomthetho. Le nkqubo iye yaba semgangathweni wokuphucula inkqubo yonyango (ii-Medicaid wavers phantsi kwecandelo 1115) kunye nemfundo (iii-wavers ukusuka kukungabikho nyana Osezantsi kwiimfuno zelizwe). I-waivers zimela i-membly edid, apho imvume karhulumente inika u-IGenesalation ukuba avavanye, acuthe imigca yegunya.

Imigaqo Engundoqo Yegunya Elikhoyo

Amacandelo amaninzi abalulekileyo omgaqo-nkqubo karhulumente waseMerika achazwa ngokusetyenziswa kwamagunya karhulumente norhulumente. Ukuhlolisisa ezi ndawo kutyhila iziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zolawulo lorhulumente.

Imfundo: Usukelo Lwesizwe, Ulawulo Lwasekuhlaleni

Imfundo ibingumthetho wesizwe nowendawo ekhoyo. Ulawulo lwemfundo, umfundisi-lwazi, iifomu zenkxaso-mali yesikolo, kunye neemfuno zokuphumelela. Noko ke, urhulumente wengingqi uye wandisa indima yakhe ukususela phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-20. I-Elemetical kunye neSecondary Education Act (EA) ka-1965], egunyazisiweyo njengoMthetho (ESA) [FLT] ngamnye ophumeleleyo kwinkulungwane ye-20] ngo- 2015, iminyanzelo yezigidi zezigidi ze-R3 ze-R3 ezisebenzela abafundi abangenayo. Ukutshintshisana, kufuneka kunikezele iimvavanyo kunye neengxelo ze-data ezisemgangathweni.

Oku kulalanisa kudala uxinezeleko. Urhulumente wesizwe usebenzisa amandla akhe okunyanzelisa ukujongela phambili ukuphendulana nokulingana, lo gama urhulumente exhathisa oko akugqala njengokuphezulu, ukulingana nobukhulu obunye. Imigangatho yeSizwe esiqhelekileyo iCore State ithatha inyathelo lokuqala, ngelinye ixesha ingekho nkqubo karhulumente, yahlaselwa ngokubanzi njengomnyanzeli wesizwe, ebonisa ukuchanabeka okukhulu kwemeko ye-Iquator kwimfundo. Ngaphezu koko, imithetho yorhulumente efana [[FLT: 0] i-tit IX (ibhanothi ye-cation-ge syn) kunye ne-astrivectal Exacts (IDI) ne-ISCFUM) elungele ukulawulwa kwemfundo yezemfundo yezemfundo yezemfundo.[FLT]

Impilo: Ummandla ozii-Dominite ongaphezulu

Imimandla embalwa ibonakalisa ukuntsonkotha kwamandla angenayo ngcono kunezonyango. Umthetho wokukhathalela okungenakulinganiswa (ACA) ngokuzitshintsha ngendlela ephawulekayo indawo yezonyango ngokumisela imigangatho ye-inshorensi yezempilo yengingqi, efuna ukugqunywa kweemeko ezikhoyo ngaphambili, kunye nokwenza inkxaso-mali esezantsi yase-Melika. Noko ke, i-AAA ixhomekeke kakhulu kwintsebenziswano yelizwe. Yaqala yagunyazisa ukuba ichaze ukwandisa [[FLT:] Médicaid[[ [iced] [iced, i-omatiliced, i-MCMCIT] elungileyo. Xa iNkulawula kuMFLD [F]

Isiphumo sisahlulo esicacileyo solawulo. Ngonyaka wama-2024, amazwana alishumi awandisanga Mdicaid, eshiya izigidi zabantu abadala abafumana imali ephantsi bekwisithuba esingu "sokufihla" apho bafumana khona imali eninzi ye-Mdicaid kodwa incinane kakhulu kwi-ACAIT. Le nto idala iziphumo ezinzulu zempilo kwiziphumo zempilo ezingaphaya kwemigca yesizwe. Ngaphezu koko, amazwe alawula iminyango yawo ye-inshorensince, ukucinezela iziphumo ezidizam, ukuxilonga izibhedlele, nokulawula umsebenzi wezonyango, ngelixa urhulumente wesizwe enika izibonelelo ze-ACUT [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [5]] [5] [indlela yempilo esoloko i-MFLT], imisela imigangatho yokuzikhusela yeziyobisi kwimiqatha ye-FLT [FL:2], kunye ne-evosting produces , i-movectives.[FP]

Ukubuyiselwa kwemekobume: IMigaqo-nkqubo yaMazwe njengeeNtsebenziswano

Umthetho wokusingqongileyo ubonisa indlela amatyala anokuxhathisa nokukhokela ngayo kulawulo lwamazwe. Imimiselo efana nomthetho womoya ococekileyo noMthetho woMoya ococekileyo kunye noMthetho wobuGcwebe beManzi [ umisela umgangatho wobunjani bomhlaba kunye nemida ye-ethenti. I-EPA isebenza ngokunyanzela ukunyanzela le migaqo. Kodwa i-Cecle Air act iququk-"udiotivereasedism," ukumisela igunya elibalulekileyo lokuthetha ngako "Izicwangciso ze-IPGreagent" (IPS). Amazwe angayila iindlela zawo zokudibana nee-markshort, kuquka iinkqubo zorhwebo kunye neenkqubo zobungqongqo basekuhlaleni.

Isixhobo esinamandla somgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo ophenjelelwa ngurhulumente yi epainer. Phantsi koMthetho we-Cease Air, eKhalifoniya ufumana umenzi ongaqhelekanga wokumisela imilinganiselo yezithuthi ezitshayelela, eziqinileyo ngenxa yeengxaki zayo ezinzima zokusingisele. Amanye amazwe angakhetha ukwamkela imigangatho yeKhalifoniya kunokuba isiseko sikarhulumente. Oku kubangele ulawulo olukhulu, ngokunempumelelo abenzi benqwelo-nqwelo-mafutha ukunyanzela ukwakhiwa kwecandelo elikhulu leU.S. imake. Xa ulawulo lwe-Curbamp lutshaye lwabangela imfazwe enkulu esemthethweni, ukuqaqamba kolawulo lwezwelo. Oku kunyanzeleka ngokuphanya kwemeko-bume ye-manyeneyo. Abaphathi bezopolitime abalawulayo abanyanzelelaneyo, kwaye abavumili ekungeneni kwe-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-ogatemplign.

Izinto Zokuhamba: Ukwakha Isakhiwo Esinesakhelo See - Interstate

Uthungelwano lwezothutho lwelizwe ngumzekelo wencwadi esetyenziswayo yokulawula izibonelelo ezigqithisileyo. iFederal Highway Administration imisela imilinganiselo yeendlela eziselubalazweni kwaye inika uninzi lwemali ngeRandi yeNkxawane yezothutho, exhotyiswe yirhafu yegesi karhulumente. Noko ke, kwaye igcine iindlela, zimisela imida yesantya (ngendlela yolawulo lwelizwe olusuka kwiNicon zera), kwaye inyusa imisebenzi yazo yokwakha. Lo mbutho, owenziwe ngexesha lokudalwa kweNtcholamspreatesysteat phantsi koMongameli Eishower, uxhathisa. Ngoko, kuvela iingcawabo ngokunjalo, inkcelo olufana nokubukelelwa kwemeko-mongobume ye-Névironmentmentmentmentation ([5])

Iindawo Zokudanyaza: Apho Kubakho Ungquzulwano Olugqithiseleyo

Ngaphandle kolawulo oluzinzileyo, kukho imiba ethile ebangela amadabi anzulu angokwasemthethweni nakwezobupolitika achaza imida yegunya likarhulumente nelorhulumente.

Ukwenziwa komthetho okuqhelekileyo: Ungquzulwano Oluyintloko

Umthetho osemthethweni wenkangeleko yezonyango kunye nokuzonwabisa umela olona celomngeni luthe ngqo noluzingisileyo kubukhulu borhulumente kumaxesha angoku. Phantsi kolawulo lwamaqumrhu ( UMthetho we-Substances (CSA), intsangu ihlala ingu ] Iziyobisi ze-[] [[FLT]]]] [ichazwe njengenobukhali bokuxhatshazwa okuphezulu kokuxhatshazwa nokungasetyenziswa kwezamayeza okwamkelekileyo ngoku. Oku kubekwa kudidi olusemthethweni olufana ne-heroinko. Ngaphandle koku, ama-38 asemthethweni anokusetyenziswa kwezamayeza okunyanga, kwaye 24 anokusetyenziswa ngokwasemthethweni kubantu abadala.

Oku kubangela ukungaqiniseki okunzulu ngokomthetho. Amacandelo asemthethweni asebenza ngokwaphula umthetho ngqo. Kangangamashumi eminyaka, iSebe leJaji lisebenzisa oku ngokukhupha imisebenzi yokhokelo (njenge Cole Memones) eyalathisa abatshutshisi bephondo ukuba baluyeke ulawulo kumazwe anezinyuko eziqinileyo ezilawulayo. Noko ke, le misebenzi ayingomthetho yaye inokucinywa nangaliphi na ixesha. Ingxabano iyanda ekubhankini (njengomthetho olawulayo yenza kube nzima ukusebenzisa iinkonzo ezisemgangathweni zebhankini), irhafuthelo (ICandelo le-Rocester Ecesssss) (ICandelo 280 elisusa amashishini akwizikhundla eziseko lomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko).

Ukunyanzeliswa Kokungabikho Kwentsebenziswano: Imida Yentsebenziswano Yokuzithandela

Umthetho wokufuduka unamandla apheleleyo karhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa Azora v. United States (202) ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unegunya "lokuqesha, ngokungathandabuzekiyo phezu kombandela wokufuduka." Kodwa amaphondo asoloko ezama ukuzibandakanya, ezikhokelela kwiimfazwe ezibukhali. I-SB 1070 (2010) ifuna ukwenza umthetho ube yinxenye engundoqo yonyanzelo lokufuduka ngokufuna abaphathi ukuba bahlole isikhundla sokufuduka nabani na abamiswe ngokusemthethweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawahla amalungiselelo amaninzi omthetho njengoko ekhutshiwe, kodwa yashiya ilungile "ndibonise amaxwebhu akho", emalunga nomthetho.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, "isixeko esisisixeko" kunye "nemigaqo-nkqubo yolawulo" imela amaphondo kunye neendawo ezingavumi ngamandla ukusebenzisana namagunya orhulumente okufuduka. Le nkqubo imisela jikelele ukumisela amandla okunyanzelisa umthetho wasekuhlaleni ukunyanzelisa abantu ngokusekelwe kwimiyalelo yokufuduka yasekuhlaleni. Lo mbutho uyaqhubeka ungumzekelo onamandla wemeko ephambili karhulumente ochasa izinto eziphambili zesizwe ukutyhubela kwimisebenzi, ezama ukuvala imigaqo-mthetho elawulayo nemithetho echasene nengcwele. Umgaqo wenkundla karhulumente uyakwazi ukunyanzela ukuba urhulumente aqhubele kwiinkqubo zorhulumente zolawulo ezintsha ngaphandle kogunyaziso olucacileyo. Lo mcimbiso uhlala ungumzekelo onamandla wokuchasa izinto eziphambili zikarhulumente eziphambili kumthetho owenziwe ngezenzo, uvavanyo imidalo yokulwa nomyalelo wemfundiso.

Ukunika Abanye Amalungelo: Ukubuyela Kulawulo Lwelizwe

Ilungelo lokuvota latshintshwa nguMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965 (VLT:1], owamisela ulawulo olunamandla lwemithetho yonyulo lukarhulumente kwimithetho yobuzwe nembali yocalulo. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Shelby County v. Iqela le-Rhover (2013) labetha phantsi isicwangciso esisetyenziswayo ukugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amacandelo akhuselwe yile mfuneko yeprelicance, ngokufezekileyo ekwalatha ulawulo olungundoqo lwe VRA.

Isiphumo saba kukutshintsha kwangoko nokuphawulekayo kwegunya kubuyela kumaphondo. Ngokulandela uShelby County, uninzi lwamazwe amisele imithetho yokuvota, kuquka imithetho ye-ID engqongqo, inqumla ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, kwaye ukuhlambulula komvoti oqengqelekayo. Urhulumente wesizwe uzame ukuphendula ngomthetho ofana noJohn Lewis Volting Agrees Act, kodwa ikhonkco eCongress ithintele ukudlula kwayo. Indlu yabameli ingadlula isibambiso esilula, kodwa ama-60-vote kumda weBhunga ungqiniwe ingqiniwe ingqina umqobo wokumisela imigangatho emitsha yorhulumente. Oku kuthintela ngokucacileyo indlela ukuzalana kwamandla oluntu kuxhomekeke kwigunya-mthetho woluntu.

Amalungelo Okuqhomfa Nobuhle Bendawo Yeposi

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yamaDobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022]) ngokusisiseko yaguqula ummandla wolawulo lwesizwe ngokubhukuqa Roe v. [ [[FLT]] [1977]. [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [4] ROE] [[[FLT] [[FLT]] [[FLT] [iiiiiiiiiqingo] umgaqo-mthetho-siseko [[ waye waseka ilungelo lokuqhola i-ogno [iiiiiiiiphepha] ngokukhupha ukuqhola, ukuchaza ukuba umGwanyanisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko ungadi ekunene.

Esi sigqibo sayiguqula ngoko nangoko iyunifomu, ikhuselwe ngokohlanga ukuba ibe ngumba ophezulu othe ngqo wesizwe. Imithetho yokukhupha imiyalelo kumazwe amaninzi eRiphabliki efakweyo yavalwa ngokukhawuleza okanye yathintelwa kakhulu ukuqhomfa, ngelixa amazwe akwidemokhrasi emisela imithetho yokukhusela ukufikelela. Oku kudala iimpikiswano ezintsha ezisemthethweni, kuquka iimpikiswano zokuba ngaba abaqhomli-gazi bangamangalelwa na kumazwe anokuvalwa kokusebenza kweenkqubo zabemi kumazwe apho kusemthethweni khona, nokuba angakwazi na ukuvalwa ukuthunyelwa kwamayeza okuqhomfa avunyiweyo avunyiwe yiFDA. [iFLT:] izigqibo zolawulo ezingundoqo zolawulo, ukwenza umgaqo wemfazwe engundoqo wokukhupha isisuphetho.

Imfihlelo Yogcino - lwazi: Ugqatso Lokwalathisa

Kukungabikho komthetho we-data obanzi we-operation yesizwe, uchaza ukuba ukhokele. ICalifornia Consumerfic Act (CPA) kunye nomthetho olandelayo Calinia Infacy Rights Act (CPRA) waseka amalungelo athelekisayo phezu kwembutho kunye nokuthengiswa kogcino-lwazi lobuqu. Emva kokhokelo lweKhalifoniyano, ichaza njenge Virginia (VCDPA), Coloradovation (CPA), Connecticut (CDPA), kunye ne-US (CPUCPA) ezizezazo zobuqu.

Oku kudala uloyiko oluphononogo lwemisebenzi yeshishini elisebenza njengesizwe. Inkampani kufuneka isebenzise imithetho yesizwe edibeneyo eneenkcazelo ezahlukeneyo "zogcino-lwazi olunovakalelo," amalungelo ahlukeneyo abathengi (opt-in v. opt-op) kunye nobuchule obahlukeneyo bokunyanzelisa (ilungelo lesenzo. igqwetha jikelele lomthetho-mthetho olawulayo). Umthetho okhuphayo kufuneka uqukuqele le nto, kodwa iKhomishini yeNgqungquthela iye yasilela ukuvumelana ngomlinganiselo olinganayo wokhuseleko lwemfihlo nemfuno yeshishini nokhuseleko lwesizwe. Lo ngumzekelo ophambili wokusebenza njenge "indawo zolawulo-demokhrasi" phambi kombutho lwesizwe, ukukhuthaza ukuhambela phambili kwemeko-meko-mentlalo.

Isiphelo: Ukuzimisela Kwebutho LaseMerika

Ukudibana kwamandla karhulumente norhulumente worhulumente asisiso isiphene; luphawu oluchazayo lwenkqubo yomgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. uJames Madison waphikisa ku- Federalist No. 51 ulwahlulo lwamandla phakathi kwezwe norhulumente worhulumente lunika "ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini" lwamalungelo abantu. Uxinezeleko olufumaneka kule mikhosi yelungiselelo luyaqhubeka ingxoxo, ingxoxo, kunye nokucaciswa okusemthethweni. Ngelixesha oku kunokuthi kukhokelele ekufezekeni nasekungquzukisweni, kwakhona kukuvumela ukuhlaziywa kwenkqubo, ulwamkelo lwasekuhlaleni, kunye nokuvavanywa okuqinileyo kumandla athe kranya.

Ukusuka kwigumbi lokuvota kunye nakwigumbi longxamiseko ukuya kwigumbi lovota kunye nelokurhoxa kwengingqi, imida yegunya iyavavanywa rhoqo kwaye itsalwa kwakhona. Abahlali abayiqondayo le misebenzi baxhotyiswe bhetele ukuze babandakanye norhulumente wabo, baxhase izilangazelelo zabo, kwaye basebenzise indlela entsonkothileyo echaza ubomi bemihla ngemihla eUnited States. Le nkqubo ayiqheleki ukuba icocekile, kodwa indalo yayo inika isakhiwo esiqinileyo solwahlulo olwahlukeneyo nolwandiso. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwamazwe norhulumente norhulumente urhulumente ulungelelaniso lwamazwe, iqinisekisa ukuba ilizwe lizinze ngaphandle kokulahlekelwa lulawulo lwalo lolawulo lwalo.