Amalungelo Nesivikelo Sakho Ngaphansi KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singenye yezinsika ezishintsha kakhulu zomthetho waseMelika. Saqiniswa ngo-1868 ngemva kweMpi Yombango, sachaza ngokuyisisekelo ukuthi kusho ukuthini ukuba isakhamuzi futhi sabeka imingcele enamandla yomthetho-sisekelo kohulumeni. Eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu-150, lokhu kulungiswa bekuyisisekelo esingokomthetho sokunqoba amalungelo omphakathi okungokomthetho, kusukela esikoleni kuya ekulinganani. Ukuqonda amalungelo akho ngaphansi kweSiphendulo seshumi Nesine akuyona nje indaba engokwenzuzo engokomlando. [5] Ulwazi olubalulekile lokuqonda izinga lesivikelo sakho ekumelaneni nobandlululo lukahulumeni.

Umlando: Ukuqala Kohlelo OlwaseMthethweni Omusha

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sazalwa ngenxa yomlotha weMpi Yombango kanye nenhlekelele enkulu yomthetho eyalandela. UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala neSipho samalungelo sasebenza ngokuyinhloko kuhulumeni kahulumeni, kushiyeka imibuso ikhululekile kakhulu ukuchaza amalungelo ezakhamuzi zayo. Ngemva kokuqedwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo1865, izifunda zamanzi zashesha ukumiswa "Imithetho Engalawuleki" eyayibeka imingcele ebanzi yenkululeko entsha yaseMelika. Lemithetho yawanqabela ilungelo lokuthola impahla, ukungena ezivumelweni, ukukhomba enkantolo, noma ukunyakaza ngokukhululekile. ISivumelo sobugqi saqaphela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu sodwa sasinganele ukuqinisekisa inkululeko nesilinganiso. Izenzwe zemithetho ye-105 zaklanywa njengempendulo ebanzi yokuhluleka. Imithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho yokuvikela amalungeloni wonke abantu abazalwa yisizwe ngokuthi bonke eUnited States, noma kungenamthetho, noma imvume yenkululeko, futhi isikhulu somthetho esinguhulumeni esilinganiswe wonke, imelela wonke somthetho.

Ukuba Umbombo Wezakhamuzi: Ukuchaza Ukuthi Ubani Ongowakhe

Isigwebo sokuqala seSigaba 1 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo simisa umthetho ocacile nonamandla: " Bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi ngaphansi kwegunya labo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseHulumeni lapho behlala khona. Le Nhlangano yeSizwe u-Celasmeole yalawula isinqumo esinedumela kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme [FLT:] ku-[FLY]]. [FLT] Scott v. [[FFLT:] [1857], [ingane], eyayikholelwa ukuthi ama-Afrikastriancan angeke ibe yizakhamuzi. Ngokuvimbela ukuba nesizwe noma imvume yokuba nemvelo, i-fullston, iyavuma ukuthi i-progreementationssssssss (iglay) kungathiwabonke i-uni yesizwe) i-uniast, iyavuma ukuthi, i-unistststna esizwe, iyavuma ukuthi, iyavuma ngaphambili, i-u

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile: Ukuvikela Ubuqotho Nenkululeko

I-Act Claus Procession yeSichibiyelo se 1450 ithi noma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke uphuce noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lomsho obonakala ulula ubangele izindikimba ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezihlobene zomthetho-mthetho: inqubo efanelekile nenqubo efanelekile.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba asuse ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla. Okuyinqubo elungile ixhomeke emongweni, kodwa inhloso eyisisekelo ukuthi unelungelo lokuqaphela noma isiphi isenzo esingokomthetho esimelene nawe nethuba elinenjongo lokuzwakala. Uma uhulumeni efuna ukuqeda amalungelo akho omzali, ukukukhipha emakhaya, ukukhipha ilayisensense yakho yomsebenzi, noma ukuthatha impahla yakho endaweni ephakeme, inqubo efanelekile efuna ukuba uthole isaziso esifanelekile esifanelekile nethuba elingakhethi. INkantolo Ephakeme eqondenezenzweni . [v. [FLT] [FLD:1] [6] isungule] inxenye yendlela yokuhlola inqubo ethile edingekayo ukuze kuhlolwe izingozi ezithile, icabangela izingozi ezithile eziphakathwini, ukulahlekelwa ngokungakhethi. I-Cheamsting produced productionsssting productionssssssting (iementedededed) inqubo elungiselelwe yezo ezisem. Izindlela ezingokomthetho.

Inqubo Eyisisekelo Yendlela Yokusebenza Nemfundiso Yokuhlanganisa

Inqubo eyisisekelo edinga impikiswano nenamandla. Ithi kunamalungelo athile ayisisekelo asekelwe kakhulu emlandweni nasesikweni saseMelika okuthi uhulumeni akanakuwaphazamisa, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izinqubo zilungile kangakanani. Lemfundiso ibiyimoto yokuvikela amalungelo ahlobene nomshado, umkhaya, ukuzimela ngokwezitho zomzimba, nokuzibusa. INkantolo Ephakeme ithembele enqubeni eyisisekelo engokomlando wezwe enjenge . [vv]. [[FLT:] [197] [197], okuye kwabangela ukuvinjelwa komshado okungamaqembu ahlukene; [izinhlangothi ezingxenyeni zemali nezingasese zemali ezihlukene ezisekuyo, isilinganiso esingaphezulu kwezingunxantathu ezisekuyo.[19] isilinganiso esingaphezulu kakhulu sendlela yokwamunyuko (7]) i-R.[9] i-WFT3] i-phansit orgose org (e, inqubo eyaziwa kakhulu yesigaba sokukhipha isisuko sokukhipha sokukhipha isisu. [i, [2],[4],[FFFof.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo SikaClaus: Isithembiso Sokulingana Ngaphansi KoMthetho

I-Umeal Protection Claus imemezela ukuthi nanoma yimuphi uMbuso uyophika kunoma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho. Leligama elilodwa liye laba injini engokomthetho ngemva kwezinye zezinguquko ezinkulu kakhulu zomphakathi emlandweni waseMelika. Ngaphakathi, isigqebhezana sifuna ukuba uhulumeni aphathe abantu abasendaweni efanayo ngendlela efanayo. Ayikwenqabeli zonke izakhiwo zikahulumeni, kodwa ifuna ukuba noma yiziphi izakhiwo zithethelelwe ngenjongo engokomthetho. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngesimo sokuhlelwa kohlelo:

  • Rational Basiss Review:[ Emithethweni eminingi yezezomnotho nezenhlalo, izinkantolo zibuza kuphela ukuthi umthetho uhlobene ngokufanelekile yini nesithakazelo sikahulumeni ongokomthetho. Lena indinganiso ehlonipheke kakhulu, futhi imithetho eminingi iyasinda.
  • I-Scrutiny ephakathi: Ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ebulilini noma ebugqilini, izinkantolo zifuna ukuba umthetho usebenzise isithakazelo sikahulumeni esibalulekile futhi uhlobene kakhulu naleyosithakazelo. Lendinganiso ifuna okukhulu kunesisekelo esinengqondo kodwa idinga okuncane kunokuhlolisisa okuqinile.
  • Scrutiny: Ukuhlela okusekelwe ohlwini lohlanga, emsuka wesizwe, noma enkolweni, kanye nasemithethweni ethwesa umthwalo amalungelo ayisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa indinganiso eqinile yokubukeza. Uhulumeni kumelwe ufakazele ukuthi umthetho uhloselwe ngokulinganiselwe ukuze usebenzise isithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelayo. Lendinganiso cishe njalo iyingozi kumthetho obekelwe inselelekile.

Icala Eliyisivikelo Elilinganayo Eliphawulekayo

ISivikelo esilinganayo sika-Claus siye saba isisekelo sokunqoba kwamalungelo amaningi omphakathi. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikelo sika-Claus, ukugumbula i-"isilinganisa" imfundiso eyaye yaqala ukutholakala kusukela [[FLT:] V.[FLT] v [FF:]] V[5] [FL]].[5] [iNkakhulu iNkakhulu i-FLT] [ikhulu] iSikhahlu sabhala ukuthi imibandela yomphakathi ayihlelekile, futhi i-'izimiso ezisemthethwe ngombuso we-R.[Fom] iyakusekela izivumelwano zemithetho ehlukene yezelele i-'ekhohlo, futhi kulokhu kusetshenziswa i-'inqulution.[Fose, futhi kulezi, izikhulu zezezezezenyustststst,[F][19]

Ithonya Elungelweni Lomphakathi Nobulungisa Bezenhlalo

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane siye saba ithuluzi eliyinhloko lomthetho - sisekelo lokuthuthukisa amalungelo omphakathi nobulungisa bezenhlalo eMelika.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka ngokwaso singaqinisekisi ngokuqondile ilungelo lokuvota, i-Univile Protection Claus yaso iyinhloko ekufuneni amalungelo okuvota. Reynolds v. [ [1964], iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yamisa isimiso sika "umuntu oyedwa, ivota," ukuphatha leyo ndawo yemithetho yesifunda kumelwe ilingana ngokulinganayo ezakhamuzini ukuze iqinisekise ukuthi ivoti yesakhanti ngalinye lithwele ubunzima obulinganayo. I-Sigconi se-scimes [[Folbryman], i-overdering, i-Id, nenye imithetho yokuvota ethinta ngokungenakulungiseka. Nokho, ukugcinwa kombhalo wokuqala engxenyeni yesibili kuqukethe isijeziso sokuvota, imvume yokugoqomisa imvume yokuvota kwabesifazane, kodwa iphinde ilungiswe futhi ihlelwe kamuva, ihlelwe futhi ihlelwe ngokulandela inqubo.

Umshado Nomkhaya

Zimbalwa izindawo zomthetho eziye zashintshwa kakhulu yiSichibiyelo seshumi nane somshado namalungelo omkhaya. i-Virginia isusa imingcele esekelwe ezinhlangani, futhi i-Obergefel v. i-hodges[ [i-odl] elinganise umshado kumbhangqwana ofanayo wezentengiselwano. [INkanto e-[FLT:] [[FLT]] yasusa imingcele yomshado esekelwe ezinhlanga, futhi [[FLT:]] yakholelwa ukuthi kokubili i-Mbukosombululo ne-Ceme Clausle idinga ukuqaphela imishado-ex, ukuthola ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyinkululeko nenkokhelelene ehlukene [intenxanxa yomthetho] ngokomthetho wabantwana.[3]

Imfundo Nokuhlanganyelwa Kwabantu

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo semfundo asinakulinganiswa. Brown v. Ibhodi lemfundo ilokhu iyisinqumo esidume kakhulu sokuvikela, kodwa indima yenguquko ayiphelanga ngokususa isikole. Izimo zesikole ezilandelanayo zidinga ukuthatha izinyathelo zokususa izimiso ezihlukene, ezinqatshelwa ukususwa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, futhi zikhululwe ngezindaba zesikole ezisekela amalungelo abafundi abakhubazekileyo. Izeluleko lesikole aziphelelanga ekuvikeleni amalungelo abafundi ezikoleni. Isibonelo, [kuyi- [ev] [FLT:] u-Rosev [FFF:3], u-197], iNkakhululo-Esikole esibhekene ne-mkhandlu yezelele, futhi i-kakhulu lezelelwa i-odvoluntelligence. [ence] ku-X.[4]

Ukulinganiselwa, Izinselele Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Naphezu kolimi lwayo olubanzi nefa eliguqulayo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinemingcele yangempela. Izinkantolo ziye zachaza isivikelo saso ngezindlela eziye zingasifinyeleli isithembiso esiphelele sentengo, futhi izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ziyaqhubeka ngobukhulu baso obufanele.

Imfundiso Kahulumeni

IsiHluzi seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sivimbela ukuncishwa kwamalungelo awenziwa abadlali bezentengiselwano . Okusho ukuthi, ngohulumeni noma labo abasebenzela uhulumeni. Abantu ngabanye, amabhizinisi, nezinhlangano ngokuvamile abalawulwa yimithetho. Le mfundiso yesifunda isho ukuthi ukucwaswa akulawuli ngokuqondile abaqashi, abanini bendlu, noma amabhizinisi. Nokho, ingqungquthela ingadlulisela imithetho ngaphansi kweSigaba sayo sokupho esingumthetho wokufinyelela ukuziphatha kwangasese okuhlobene nesenzo sombuso noma esithinta kakhulu izentengiselwano yezentengiselwano. ISinyathelo somthetho somthetho ka-Ogani sonyaka ka-19649, esivimbela ukucwa kwezindawo zomphakathi, okuyisibonelo sokusebenzisa isigaba sawo sokucwa kwezelulekwa. Kodwa isigaba esiyinhloko siyaqhubeka sifinyelela isilinganiso sesigaba sesigaba sesigaba sesemthethwe sikahulumeni.

Impikiswano Yokuhlangana

Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yafaka ingxenye enkulu yeBhili yamaLungelo ngokumelene nezifundazwe, le nqubo iye yafakwa, futhi eminye imikhankaso ayikafakwa. Ngokwesibonelo, imfuneko enkulu yamajaji yeNguqulo yesihlanu ayizange isetshenziswe ezifundazweni. Kukhona futhi impikiswano eqhubekayo phakathi kwabahluleli nabafundi ngendlela efanele yokuhlanganisa imibuso. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganiswa ngokuphelele kweSimemezelo seGajithe seshumi nane nenyanga kusebenza wonke amalungiselelo emibuso yamalungelo ezweni. Abanye basekela ukuhlanganiswa kwamagunya akhethekile kanye, okusebenza amalungelo akhethekile njengoba bebhekwa njengemfuneko yokuyalwa. INkantolo ilandela kakhulu indlela ekhethayo, kodwa le mpikiswano ibonisa ukungavumelani okujulileyo ngencazelo ye-andment nemvelo.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Nemibuzo Engaxazululwanga

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyaqhubeka sisenkabeni yezimpikiswano zanamuhla zomthetho-sisekelo. Imibuzo ephathelene nokuvuma isenzo, imingcele yokuvota, amalungelo okukhipha isisu ngemva . U-Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202], futhi amalungelo abantu abathi i-transgender aphenduleka zonke izincazelo ze-Active Procement ne Provicetion Clausstion. Inqutectives yamuva nje i-Dobs's's's's's's's' isho izimpawu indlela edingayo efanelekile, ukuphakamisa imibuzo ngekusasa evikelekile ngaphansi kwaleyomfundiso yemfundiso yezekhomu. I-Ezisekeni ekhona inciphekelwe noma i- - hlelo lamuva, i- - 3 ye-Suppose, futhi i-Equin ehlangeneyohluliwe yi-E. Nokho, i-A. Nokho, i-E.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asiyona nje into engokomlando. Yilungiselelo eliphilayo lomthetho-sisekelo elibumba ubuhlobo phakathi kwabantu nohulumeni nsuku zonke. Uma ungumfundi obhekene nesenzo sokujezisa esikoleni somphakathi, umbhangqwana ofanayo ofuna ukuqashelwa komshado wakho, i-vota eyinselele yomthetho ovimbelayo, noma umuntu onombala obhekene nobandlululo, iSimemezelo seSimemezelo se-Dintente esingokomthetho sokuqinisekisa amalungelo akho. Isiqinisekiso sawo esibili senqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esilinganayo sisemthethweni wamazwe akhona. Ukuqonda lezi sivikelo sikunika amandla okugcina umthetho owenakekelwembuyiselo nokwazi izici zezindaba eziphuthumayo zezenhlalo nezomthetho zesikhathi sethu. [Feffenst] [[3] [F4] [Fells, ewuhluza i-studestname] [ense] [[F], [ense] [ense] [ense], ewuhlelo lomthetho ohlukene] [[F]] [F]], [F]] [F], [estst