Indlela Yokuya Elungelweni Lesizwe: Indlela Izivikelo Zokukhetha Ezincane Ngayo

ISiphendu se-Bill of Rights [1] Inguquko yokuqala eyishumi kumthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S.(i-C) yabhalwa ekuqaleni ukuthi inqande uhulumeni wombuso kuphela. Amazwe ayekhululekile ukungazinaki lezo zithembiso ngaphandle kokuba imithetho yawo siqu inikeze isivikelo esifanayo. Leligebe laliwusongo olukhulu emaqenjini amancane, ayevame ukubhekana nokucwaswa esifundazweni nasesitejini sendawo. Kulelikhulu leminyaka elidlule, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yavala lelogebe ngemfundiso engokomthetho ebizwa ngokuthi ikhetha ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho ye-, isebenzisa kakhulu i-Bill of Rightsssssssssss ku-prefectivement edlula i-1455th Amelika. Lenqubo iye yaba elinye lamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu okuvikela amalungelo amancane eMelika, iqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko ayiyona eyisisekelo sezikhulu zikahulumeni noma iziphathi zendawo zendawo.

Ukukhetha akusona isenzakalo esisodwa kodwa inqubo yecala ngekhanda. INkantolo ibuza ukuthi ilungelo elithile “lisekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe” noma“ ukuqondisisa icebo lobulungisa baseMelika.” Uma kuyilo, ilungelo liyahlanganiswa futhi libopha izizwe. Ngokungafani nengqikithi yokuhlanganisa inqubo yecala. Ngokungafani ne-cometication organmentation ngo kanye /ukukhetha iNkantolo ivumela isilinganiso sokubaluleka kwelungelo ngalinye. Lendlela yamabomu iye yandisa isakhiwo sesivikelo seqembu elincane eliphethe izwe lonke, kusukela ekukhulumeni ngokukhululekile nasemhlanganweni ukuya enqubeni yamaphoyisa nasemthethweni wobugebengu.

Ukusuka EBarron Kuya EGitlow: UGenesise Wokukhetha

Lendaba iqala nge- Barron v. Baltimore (1868), lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall akholelwa ukuthi iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Emashumini eminyaka ngemva kwalokho, izifunda zingakhuluma ngebridge engenasiqinisekiso, zithathe ukuphenya, noma ziphike isigwebo sejaji ngaphandle kokwephula umthetho-sisekelo. Ngemva kweMpi Yombango yomphakathi, iSiphendulo seshumi elinesine (1868) sasungula i-Calbes Programme [[[FLT:]] I-ATYYY NOBE [[FLT]]: “Ayingeke ilahlekelwe nanoma yimuphi uhulumeni ohlupha umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Ngeminyaka eminingi, iNkakhulu leNkakhulu yamelana ukusebenzisa le mithetho esaba ukubusa."

Inkathi yokushintsha yafika [[FLT: 0] Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow, umsoshayeli, waboshwa ngaphansi komthetho wezephulamthetho waseNew York wobugebengu wokwabelana ngepheshana elithi Le Learth Wing Happ Modesto . INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuqiniseka kwakhe kodwa, ngokubaluleke kakhulu, yamemezela ukuthi “ngakho manje, singase sithathele futhi siphethe leyonkululeko yenkulumo neyomsebenzi wokunyathelisa ngokuvikela iSiphakamiso Sokuqala esivela eSihlahleni seSishaya - ngokomthetho, esivikelwe yi-Revisiontion, elungiselelweni elingu elingu leNkahhlwini lweNkade nezinguquko, ezithiwe kuphela.

Indlela Imishini Yokukhetha Ekhethayo: Ukuhlolwa Kwenkululeko Ehleliwe

INkantolo iye yasebenzisa ukuhlola okuyinhloko okubili ukunquma ukuthi kufanele kufakwe ilungelo yini. Eyokuqala, yaphinyiselwa ku-Palko v.Connecticut (137], ibuza ukuthi ilungelo liyini “ekuhlonishweni kwenkululeko ehleliwe” kangangokuthi“ isimiso sobulungisa esilungile nesikhanyiselweyo sobulungisa singavela ngaphandle kwaso. Ngaphansi kwalendinganiso, iNkantolo yafaka inkulumo yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala, ipotshotshoza, nengqungquthela, iSiphendulo sesine sokupheka okungaqikazi, nendiswa kwemithetho yeSigqi yeSigqi ye-Imposo-enselo. Indivizelele, yesibili, injwayelo enkulu kakhulu [FFot] v.[Fogn][1998] [19] noma iNkakhulu, ukuthi iNkathi yeNkathi yesinqumo sokulunga sokulunga somthetho sokulunga sokulunga. i- - ngokomthetho sokukhipha.

Ukukhetha kukhetha ngokunembile ngoba kuvumela iNkantolo ukuba icabangele ukubaluleka kwelungelo kwinkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nesivikelo esincane. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu lokumangalela amajaji amakhulu ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala kwathathwa njengokungavumelani nenkolo futhi kungahlanganisiwe. Okwamanje, ilungelo lokumelana nokungavumelani nelungelo [i-FLT] lokwe-yodwa [i-FLT]] [indlela] yafakwa ekusebenziseni uMalmy v. Hogan [1964], icala elithinta ngokuqondile isigaba sohlanga esicindezelwa ukuba sivume iphoyisatha. Inqubo i-pragmate: ubulungisa bubonakala ekuziphatheni komlando, izilinganiso zesikhathi samanje, nezingozi ezingokoqobo zesimo sombuso.

Ukuvikela Izwi Elincane: Isichibiyelo Sokuqala Sokuhlobana

Umhlangano Okhululekile

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala siyisici esiqinile sokungalawuleki kweqembu elincane. Getlow, iNkantolo iqhubeka ihlanganisa inkulumo, ukucindezela, umhlangano, nesicelo. Denge v. Oregon [1937] [iNkawu], iNkantolo yashaya umthetho wezwe owephula umthetho emhlanganweni wamaKhomanisi, iphethe ukuthi ilungelo lokuhlangana ngokuthula “liyimfanelo yokuphila kwethu njengelungelo lokukhuluma ngokukhululekile.” Lokhu kuvumela amaqembu amancane ezombangazwe ukuba ahlele ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuquliswa. [FLT] [FLT] [FLD] v.[FT][FLD5]

Ukuzivivinya Okukhululekile Kwenkolo

Inkolo embalwa izuzile futhi. Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940), iNkantolo yahlanganisa i-Free Execrect Claus, ivumela oFakazi BakaJehova ukuba basakaza izincwadi zenkolo naphezu komthetho kahulumeni owehlisa amandla. [[FLT:]] Shertbert v. Verner [1963]), iNkantolo yasebenzisa uvivinyo oluncane lokuzivivinya i-Free Cooperacence Claus, ivumela ukuba oFakazi BakaJehova banikeze izinzuzo zokunga umsebenzi eNingizimu Carolina ezinzuzo zesonto yesithathu enqaba ukusebenza ngoMgqibelo. Nakuba izimo kamuva zifana [FLT:] uV. Smith Smith[FLT:] (1990]) ukuhlolwa okuncane kwezenkolo, iqinisekisa ukuthi i-Calmodition ephethe i-odvoluthorition ephethe i-ogggnome.

Ukuvikela Abavikeli Abancane: Ukuhlalisana Kwesigebengu

Ukuhlanganiswa kweqembu kuye kwaba okubaluleke kakhulu kakhulu ngezinhlanga nangokomnotho abambalwa esimisweni sokwahlulela kobugebengu. IWarren Court (1953-1969) yasungula ushintsho enqubeni yobugebengu, ihlanganisa izinguquko eziningi zokunqanda imikhuba yombuso exhaphazayo.

Umthetho we-Exclussionary: Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Ku ku-Wolf v. Colorado (1949), iNkantolo yayiphethe ukuthi isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuhlola okungenangqondo sasetshenziswa ezindaweni esisekelweni[, kodwa yenqaba ukufuna ukuba kufuneke ukuba kungabikho ubufakazi obungavumelekile obutholakali ngokungekho emthethweni. Lokhu kwadala isimiso sobulungisa esinezintambo ezimbili: izigaba ezimbalwa enkantolo zombuso zathola umthetho owe-othona, kodwa labo abasenkantolo yezwe abazange. U-Ohio amaphoyisa uDollree Map’s, ngaphandle kwemvume, ukufuna ukucwaswa kwebhomu, futhi kwatholakala izinto ezingcolile. Umelukhohliswa kuphela ebufakazini. Ukubusa okuphakeme, ukukhipha umthetho [Foctal:] [Foct.][5]

Ilungelo lokuyaleza: [[QUL:0] Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Clarence Earl Gideon, indoda empofu eyayinemfundo yesihlanu, wabekwa icala lokugqekeza egumbini lase-Florida. Wacela ummeli; uhulumeni wenqaba ngoba iFlorida kuphela lapho iluleka khona emacaleni abulalayo. Wazivikela futhi walahlwa icala. INkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo leSixteth Reformation lokunikeza iseluleko lalibalulekile futhi lafakwa eSiphendulweni seGeneticle. “Izigebengu zezelele ezinkantolo zezemthetho ziyisidingo, hhayi ukunethezeka,” IJaji elingu-Black labhala. Gideon] Imiphumela ethuthukisiwe kakhulu ngenxa yesigaba sezeluleko esibhekene ngokomthetho; ngaphandle kokuqulwa kwe-Gintelligence.

Isivikelo ekuzichaseleni: Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

[[FLT:] Mira izixwayiso . "Unelungelo lokuthula"""""'INkantolo idinga kuphela ngoba iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sihlanganise ilungelo lokuzimela [[FLT:]] Malloy v. Hogan [1964] [i-'64] futhi yasebenzisa lokho okubambe umthetho we-prophycyism [[FLT: 4.] [iSime] [i-FLT] . u-Ernero Mirada], umuntu ompofu wase-Mexictic, waphenywa amahora amaningi ngaphandle kokutshelwa ukuba ahlale athuleze noma athole iseluleko. Inkantolo ephakeme yasetshenziswa ukuba isebenzise umthetho ophakeme [[Flm] Inkantolo ehlanganisa i-Probitainst, futhi i-tone. I-o Milla, i-Prolective, i-mosssss.

Isijeziso esinonya nesingavamile: Robinson v. California (1962)

ISichibiyelo Sesichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili safakwa ezijezisweni ezinonya nezingavamile Robinson v. California, lapho iNkantolo yawisa khona umthetho waseCalifornia owenza ukuba ukuluthwa kwezidakamizwa kube yicala lobugebengu. “Akuvamile ukuthi noma yimuphi uMbuso kulomzuzu emlandweni uzama ukwenza umuntu agule ngengqondo,” IJaji Stewart liphawulwe. Lokhu kuvumela amaqembu amancane ukuba abeke inselele intengo entengo eqile (ukufakwa kwemidanti yemidamuza u Claus Claus e [FLT:]]] Timbs. v[FLT]] [FLT]]]] [209]) futhi imikshosholo yemisholo yezidakamizwa ethinta i-Blalkn. [Robt] Isigwebo esinzima]

Ukuvikela Ukulingana Ngenqubo Elindelekile: Ukuhlangana Kwanamuhla Namalungelo Amancane

Ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho esemthethweni akugcini nje kuphela. Inkantolo iye yafaka iSichibiyelo Sesihlanu sokuthatha u-Claus (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railrand v. Chicago[] [1897]), iqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni abangakwazi ukuthatha impahla ngaphandle kokukhokha imbuyiselo nje kuphela, isivikelo esibalulekile kumnini-mhlaba omncane ngokweze ngokomlando oyedwa oye wagqitshwa ngenxa yokuxhashazwa kwezwe kakhulu. Ilungelo leSichibiyeli sesibili lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali lafakwa [[FLT:] [Mc5] [5] [5] [FLT] [20], icala elilethwa yisivakalisi esihlala eChicago esifuna isandla se-fun. INkathi elivamile lisebenza futhi lisebenza neNkathi INkathi yeNkathi yecala.

Mhlawumbe ukusebenza kwanamuhla okunemiphumela emikhulu kakhulu kokuhlanganisa amalungelo amancane kwafika ezicaleni zomshado ezilinganayo. ku-Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSimemezelo seSiphendulo se 14 seSiphendulo siqinisekisa imibhangqwana ehlangeneyo ye-Celasmente uClaus enelungelo elifanayo lokushada. Nakuba iNkanto enkantolo yayingancikile nje kuphela ekuhlanganiseni inqubo efanelekile, futhi yasebenzisa i-suquoth creation project: ilungelo lokushada eliyisisekelo elingenakumiswa i-Brijijelo. Ngaphandle kokuhlelwa, kungaqhubeka ukuphika amalungelo avunyelweyo emibhangqwanani, ukwakha ibhodini lokuhlola ukungalingani kwe-United States.

Amalungelo Angewona Asemthethweni Nethonya Lawo Ezincane

Akuwona wonke amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo ahlanganisiwe. ISichibiyelo sesithathu (isikhungo samasosha) asizange sisetshenziswe kumazwe. Imfuneko enkulu yokumangalelwa kwe-Communiment yeFind 5 isingekho, izisho ezingamangalela ngokwaziswa noma ukukhononda .Umkhuba onganqanda abamangalelwa abambalwa abangathola inzuzo eqenjini labahluleli abaphezulu. ISimemezelo seSichibiyelo seSengxenye sokuHlulwe ngokusemthethweni asizange sifakwe ecaleni lejaji, ngakho amaqembu angalinganisela ukuqulwa kwejaji ngezindaba zombathanothi, okungathinta idlanzanaba abamangali abaletha amasudi ezabandlululwayo. Inguquko yesibili yafakwa kuphela ngo-2010, futhi yabekwa icala eliwukuhle kakhulu, ngemithetho egcwele ukuthi abagxeki abamelene nokuzilimaza amalungelo amancane.

Indlela ekhethwayo iNkantolo ingahlola kabusha amalungelo angafakiweyo ngenxa yezimo ezishintshayo. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungiselelo leSichibiyelo se-Beall elidlulele alifakwanga ngokomthetho embonweni olawulayo, kodwa ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zayisebenzisa ngenqubo efanele. Uma uhulumeni ubungamukela isimiso sebheyili esivalela abamangalelwa abambalwa kakhulu ngaphambi kokuba kuqulwe, iNkantolo inganquma ukuhlanganisa i-Bail Claus engaphezulu kakhulu ukuze inikeze indinganiso yesizwe efanayo.

Isiphetho: Isivikelo Esiphilayo Samalungelo Amancane

Ukuhlanganisa okusemthethweni akuyona insalela eqinile ye-20 centurry jurisprunce. Isalokhu iyimfundiso ephilayo evumelana nezinsongo ezintsha ezimelene namalungelo amancane. Uma uhulumeni udlulisa abavukeli bomthetho abasekela ukwahlulela kohlanga, iSichibiyelo sokuqala esihlanganisiwe sinikeza inselele esheshayo yomthetho-sisekelo. Uma amaphoyisa asebenza ekufunyaniseni uhlanga, iSichibiyelo sesine esinemida esinika abamangalela ubufakazi obucindezelayo. Uma uhulumeni ubeka isigwebo sombhishobhishobhi we-draki engolweni yemibala encane, iSiphendulo se-8 esihlanganisiwe singanikeza impumuzo.

Ubuchule bokukhetha busebunzimeni bayo, iNkantolo ingandisa isivikelo njengoba umphakathi ushintsha. Iqinisekise ukuthi amaMelika kuwo wonke amazwe ajabulela inkululeko efanayo, encishisiwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inguquko yendawo noma inguquko yezombangazwe. Kumaqembu amancane, lesi sizwe siye saba umehluko phakathi kokuthuliswa nokuzwakala, phakathi kokujeziswa ngaphandle kweseluleko nokuvikelwa, phakathi kokuphenywa ngaphandle kwesizathu nokukhululeka ekuphazanyisweni okungenangqondo. Njengoba isizwe silwisana nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngombuso, inguquko yamaphoyisa, nokulingana, i-onke i-othorion, i-gavition iyaqhubeka isebenza njengebhuloho elithwala uBill of Rights ingene ezingosini sezikhulu ezingokomthetho futhi ivikele izandla zalabo abadinga kakhulu.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe ezicathulweni eziyinhloko nasekuthuthukeni komlando kokukhetha, vakashela iprojekthi Oyez [ yemibono egcwele, Cornell Legil Information Institute[ ukuze ucaciswe lemfundiso, kanye SCOTYMYY[[ ukuze uhlaziyilo lwamanje lwezihlolo lokuhlanganisa ngemicisho yamuva yeNkantolo Ephakeme.