Iyini Inqubo Efanele?

Inqubo efanelekile imfuneko engokomthetho yokuba uhulumeni ahloniphe wonke amalungelo angokomthetho akweletwa umuntu. Iyisisekelo sesimiso somthetho waseMelika, esiklanyelwe ukuvimbela izenzo zikahulumeni ezizeqisayo noma ezingenabulungisa ezingancisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Umqondo ufakwe kukho kokubili iSichibiyelo sesihlanu (esisebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni) neSichibiyelo seGawulayo (esihlanganisa isivikelo esifanayo nohulumeni bendawo). Esiyinhloko saso, inqubo efanelekile, iqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho iyakuba nenengqondo, icace futhi isetshenziswe ngokulinganayo, nokuthi abantu bazothola isaziso esilungile nesinengqondo ngaphambi kokuba noma imuphi umluleki wezwe uvele.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yenqubo Efanele

Inkulumo ethi “inqubo yokuqala yomthetho” yavela okokuqala ewumthetho wesiNgisi wekhulu lama-354, kodwa izimpande zayo zibuyela ngisho nangaphezulu eMagna Carta ngo-1215. U-Claus 39 we-Magna Carta wamemezela:“ Akukho muntu okhululekile ozobanjwa noma agqunywe ejele... ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kwabalingana naye noma ngomthetho wezwe.” Lesivikelo sokuqala mayelana namandla omthetho oweqikelezayo ekugcineni saqala ukushintshela ekuqondeni kwanamuhla kwenqubo efanele. Umthetho-Framers of the U.S. Umthetho-sisekelo wahlanganisa lesi simiso, waqaphela ukuthi umphakathi okhululekileyo awunakuphila ngaphandle kokuvikelwa okunamandla ngokuxhasha uhulumeni.

Namuhla, amalungelo afanele enqubo aphakathi kwezindaba zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ezicatiswe kakhulu ezinkantolo zaseMelika. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yazichaza ngokuphindaphindiwe lezinguquko ukuqinisekisa ukuthi amandla kahulumeni ahlolwa ngokulunga komthetho nokuhlonipha inkululeko eyisisekelo. Ukuze uthole umbono ojulile ongokomlando, i-Cornell Legal Information Institute inikeza ukubukezwa okubanzi kwenqubo efanelekile yemfundiso [.

“ Awukho uMbuso ozoncisha noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” — ISichibiyelo se 144th, Isiqephu 1

Izinhlobo Zenqubo Efanele

INkantolo Ephakeme ihlukanise inqubo efanele yaba izigaba ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezilandelanayo: inqubo eyisisekelo edingayo nenqubo efanelekile yokuhlela. Ukuqonda umehluko kubalulekile ezakhamuzini ezifuna ukwazi ukuthi amalungelo azo asebenza kanjani ezimweni ezihlukahlukene ezingokomthetho.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni, ngisho noma uhulumeni elandela izinqubo ezilungile. Ilinganisela ukuthi yimiphi imithetho engenziwa ekuqaleni. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana, nelungelo lokuzibusa ngokomzimba konke kuvikelwe ngaphansi kwenqubo efanelekile. Uma uhulumeni udlulisa umthetho ovimbela zonke imishado, ukuthi umthetho uzoba ongathathiwe ngokomthetho, hhayi ngenxa yendlela obekwe ngayo, kodwa ngenxa yalokho okuwuvimbelayo. [2] [2] [20] [20] Abagxeki benqubo efanelekile bento ebekelwe yona. [20]

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile, ngokuphambene, ibhekisa ku indlela izimfuneko eziqondile ezithathwa ngayo. uhulumeni wenza ngayo izenzo zakhe. Kudingeka ukuba ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni asuse ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla, umuntu athole isaziso esifanelekile, ithuba elinenjongo lokuzwakala, nomenzi-isinqumo ongakhethi. Izimfuneko eziqondile kuye ngokuthi kuxhomeke esimweni. Inqubo ehambisana nokulingwa kobugebengu iyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu kunenqubo edinga ukugcinwa kwezesikole. Icala lengqophakame lika-obhusayithi . [v.[FLT] [FLT] [3] [6] [6] inqubo ekhethekile ephakathi kwezinkantolo esetshenziswa ekunqumeni izingozi ezingoko kunquma izingozi eziyimfihlo (1) izingozi ezisemthethweni zomphakathi, izindleko ezikhona kanye nezingalethwa yinzuzo.

“ Inqubo efanelekile yenqubo yenqubo engokwesayensi ayiyona ukukhulelwa okunokwaziswa okumisiwe okungahlobene nesikhathi, indawo, nezimo.” — IJaji uFelix Frankfurter, I-Ayiththi Anti-Fascist Refugeency Commmoy. v. McGRANT[[FL:1] [1951]

Izingxenye Eziyinhloko Zamalungelo Enqubo Alindelekile

Izakhi eziqondile zamalungelo enqubo ezifanele ziyahluka ngokomongo, kodwa izici eziningana zivamile cishe kukho konke okusetshenziswayo, lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi abantu baphathwa ngenhlonipho nangokungakhethi phakathi nale nqubo engokomthetho.

Yazi

Isaziso esifanelekile siyimfuneko yokuqala yenqubo efanele. Umuntu kumelwe atshelwe ngamacala noma isenzo esihlongozwayo ngawo ngendlela efike ngesikhathi necacile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma umgcini-ndlu ebhekene nokuxoshwa, umnini-khaya kumelwe anikeze isaziso esibhaliwe esichaza izizathu nosuku lokuqulwa kwecala. Uma umuntu eboshiwe, kumelwe atshelwe ngecala elithile abekwe icala lokulenza. Ngaphandle kwesaziso esifanele, abantu abakwazi ukulungiselela isivikelo noma ukuhlanganyela ngokubaluleka phakathi nomphakathi.

Ithuba Lokuzwiwa

Ukumane aqaphele akwanele. Umuntu kumelwe futhi abe nethuba langempela lokusabela, ubufakazi obukhona, ukubiza ofakazi, nokuphikisana nabo. Lelilungelo livame ukubizwa ngokuthi “ilungelo lokuzwiwa” futhi liyisisekelo sezenzo zokuzwana. [eka[FLT:]] Goldberg v. Kelly [1970], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi abamukeli benhlalakahle babenelungelo lokuzwa i-opradiodia esobala ngaphambi kokuba izinzuzo zabo zinqanyulwe. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi ngisho nokulahlekelwa kwesikhashana kwezinzuzo kungabangela ukulimala okungaphinde kuphinde kuvele, futhi ukuthi ukwamukela ithuba lokuchashala ingekubekuyiphutha.

Umenzi wesinqumo esingathathi-hlangothi

Inqubo elindelekile idinga ukuba umuntu noma iqembu elenza isinqumo sokugcina libe elingakhethi futhi lingacwasi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi umahluleli, isikhulu esizwayo, noma ijaji alinakuba nesehlo semali somuntu siqu noma somkhankaso. ICaperton v.A.T. iMassay Coal. [2009], iNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yanquma ukuthi uma uma iminikelo yomkhankaso we-ligit iveza “ukungalungisi kobandlululo." Lelungelo livimbela izimpikiswano zenzalo, njengelungu lenhlangano yokuqondisa elakhonza njengomshushishisi ngaphambili.

Ilungelo Leseluleko

Nakuba ingaphelele kunoma isiphi isiphi isenzakalo somphakathi, ilungelo lokumelela ngokomthetho liyitshe lenqubo efanelekile yobugebengu. Gedeon v. Wainright (1963), iNkantolo Ephakeme yabambelela ekutheni i-Aquarentiat kumelwe inikeze ummeli kubamangalelwa ongakwazi ukunikeza omunye onecala elingokomthetho. Lokhu kubusa kamuva kwanwetshelwa kunoma yiliphi icala lapho ummangalelwa eboshwe khona ngempela ( [Argisterer v. Ham, 1972],). Ilungelo lokuqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukuqondisa imithetho eyinkimbinkimbi yobufakazi nenqubo, futhi bagweme ukuvikelwa ngokwawo. Ngisho kanye nomongokwabantu abambalwa, isiyaluyaluyaluyaluyaluyalu olubalulekile, nakuba imvume zemvume zomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho zingena ezinhlonze.

Ukubaluleka Kwamalungelo Okuhlela Afanele

Amalungelo okusebenza akuzona izimfundiso ezingekho emthethweni, kodwa zifeza izinjongo ezibalulekile ezithinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke kwesakhamuzi ngasinye. Nazi izizathu eziyinhloko ezibangela lezi sivikelo:

  • Imisa umthetho: inqubo efanele iqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho isetshenziswa ngokungaguquguquki nangokubikezela, ayisekelwe ekucabangeni komuntu siqu noma ekukhetheni. Lokhu kuphathwa okulinganayo kuyisici somphakathi wentando yeningi.
  • ivikela inkululeko yabantu ngabanye:[ ngokulinganisela ukuphaphamela kukahulumeni, inqubo efanele ivimbela umbuso ekuboshweni ngokungenamthetho, ukuthatha impahla, noma ukuvimbela ukukhetha komuntu ngaphandle kokulunga. Lokhu kuvikela kubaluleke kakhulu phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo noma ezikhathini zesiyaluyalu sezombangazwe.
  • [ Ukuqiniseka komphakathi: Lapho izakhamuzi zibona ukuthi amacala angokomthetho alungile futhi akhanya kakhulu, zithambekele kakhulu ekuthembeni isimiso sobulungisa futhi zivumelane nemithetho yaso. Ukuntula okucatshangelwayo kokulunga kubangela ukungathembeki nokumelana.
  • Inikeza imvume yokuthola ubulungisa: Inqubo elindelekile iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho namalungu omphakathi asengozini kakhulu, ampofu, asemajele, abekwe emaceleni, angaveza icala lawo futhi aphikise izenzo zikahulumeni. Ngaphandle kwalezi zivikelo, ukungalingani kombuso kungenza ubulungisa bube ilungelo kwabacebile.
  • Inciphiso engalungile: Izinqubo ezilungile zinciphisa ingozi yezinqumo eziyiphutha, njengokubopha umuntu ongenacala noma ukuqeda izinzuzo zomphakathi ngokungafanele. Izindleko zephutha ngokuvamile ziyalimaza umuntu, ngakho umphakathi unesithakazelo esinamandla sokulithola.

Ukuze ubone ukuthi inqubo efanele isebenza kanjani emongweni wanamuhla, i-website yase-U.S. inikeza i-pager eklanyelwe abafundi nezakhamuzi.

Inqubo Efanele Ezicathulweni Zezigebengu

Kumthetho wobugebengu, amalungelo enqubo afanele anamandla kakhulu. Izimpawu ezithi shí zilahlekelwe inkululeko, idumela, ngisho nokuphila, zenza izinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuvikela inqubo. Lamalungelo alandelayo avikelwe ngokukhethekile abamangalelwa.

Ukubhekana Nokuqulwa Kwecala Okusheshayo

ISiqesha - sisekelo seSithandathu siqinisekisa “ukuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi” ukuvimbela abamangalelwa ukuba bangagqunywa ejele izinyanga noma iminyaka eminingi ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela kwezingxenye ezine ukuze ithole ukuthi leli lungelo liphulwe yini, uma kucatshangelwa ubude belungelo, isizathu salo, ukuthi ummangalelwa ugomela ilungelo, futhi ubandlululo olubangelwa ( Barker v. Wingo, 1972).

Ukufaneleka KobuJuda Obungakhethi

Abalweli bamacala obugebengu banelungelo lokuya ejajini elikhethwe ngokungakhethi eliseqenjini lomphakathi. Abangaba abajaji abanakukhishwa ngaphandle ngenxa yohlanga, ubulili, noma ezinye izici ezivikelwe. Phakathi ne-voir, zombili izinhlangothi zingabuza ijaji ukuba zivuleke ubandlululo. Uma iqembu labahluleli lingcoliswe ukusakazwa kwecala noma ukucwaswa kwesimiso somphakathi, inkantolo kumelwe ifake ibhodi elisha labasizi noma ishintshe indawo. Ilungelo lejaji elingakhethi liqinisekisa ukuthi isahlulelo sibonakalisa isahlulelo somphakathi wonke, hhayi iqembu lomshushicileli elithwele izandla.

Isivikelo Ekuzichayeni

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sithi akekho umuntu “ozophoqelelwa kunoma iliphi icala lobugebengu ukuba abe ufakazi.” Lokhu kusho ukuthi abamangalelwa abanakuphoqelelwa ukuba bafakazele, futhi abashushisi abakwazi ukusebenzisa ukuthula njengobufakazi becala. Miranda v. Isivikelo [[FLT:] [1966] [isinqumo] sidinga amaphoyisa ukuba azise ukuthi amacala awo akhona ahlala athule futhi abe nommeli phakathi nokuphenywa kwemvume. Uma lezi zingekho izimemezelo ezidumile, noma yiziphi izimemezelo ezitholakalayo ngokuvamile ziyafaneleka enkantolo. Lokhu kuvikela ekuvimbeleni ukuvuma nokuqinisekisa ukuthi amaphoyisa akha ubufakazi bawo ngokuzimela.

Ilungelo Lokukhanga

Nakuba lingelona eliphelele, ilungelo lokudlulisa icala lobugebengu liyisivikelo esiyisisekelo. Umbuso ngamunye unikeza okungenani isilinganiso esisodwa sokubukeza. Ummangalelwa angabekela inselele amaphutha omthetho, njengemiyalo engafanele yamajaji, ukuvuma ubufakazi obutholakele ngokungemthetho, noma usizo olungaphumeleli lweseluleko. Emacaleni amakhulu, kudingeka izingqimba ezengeziwe zokubukezwa (kuwomabili uhulumeni nohulumeni) ukuze kuncishiswe ingozi yokubulala umuntu ongenacala. Inqubo ye-appellate iyindlela yokuhlola empikiswayo futhi iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuphambanisa okufanelekile kuyalungiswa.

“ Ilungelo lokudlulisa alisona isici esidingekile senqubo efanele, kodwa uma isimo sidlulisela ukunxusa, kumelwe sinikezwe ngendlela engacasuli inqubo efanele.” — Griffin v.Illinois (1956)]

Inqubo Efanele Emacaleni Ombango

Inqubo efanele ayisebenzi enkantolo yezigebengu kuphela kodwa nasembulweni wezomthetho lapho uhulumeni efuna ukuthatha khona izithakazelo ezibalulekile. Amalungelo afanele enqubo yomphakathi ahlanganisa izimo eziningi — kusukela ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nempahla kuya ekuqedweni kwamalungelo abazali.

Ilungelo Lokuqaphela Ezandini Zomphakathi

Lapho kuqulwa icala, ummangalelwa kumelwe anikezwe ngokusemthethweni ngekhophi yecala kanye nesicelo. Lesisaziso kumelwe “sibalwe” ukuze sazise umuntu ngesenzo ( uMlanye v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., 1950]. Inkonzo engathandeki ingakhipha isahlulelo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma umninindlu efaka isaziso sokuxoshwa emnyango kodwa azi ukuthi umfaki wesibhedlela usesibhedlela, ukuze isaziso singanele ukwanelisa inqubo efanele.

Ilungelo Lokuzwa Izindlebe Ezinhle

Izikhulu zinelungelo lokuveza ubufakazi, ofakazi abaxhunyaniswayo, futhi zenze izimpikiswano zomthetho phambi kwejaji noma indikimba ephetheyo. Izinqubo eziqondile zingahlukahluka. Izinkantolo ezincane ngokuvamile zisebenzisa imithetho eyenziwe lula, kanti ukukhankanya okuyinkimbinkimbi kwezentengiselwano kuhilela ukutholwa okukhulu. Ezokuqondisa `njengokuzwa ngezinzuzo zokukhubazeka, amalayisense ochwepheshe, noma umsebenzi kahulumeni wokubulala izikhawu zecala zenza ilungelo lokuzwa kodwa kumelwe zivumelane nenqubo eyisisekelo. Icala Goldberg v. Kelly (1970) liyayala: kukholelwa ukuthi abamukela inhlalakahle banelungelo lokulahlekelwa ukuzwa ngenxa yokulahlekelwa yinzuzo.

Ilungelo Lokubukeza Ekwahluleleni

Ngemva kokuba inxusa lenkantolo eliphethe noma elezansi likhiphe isinqumo, amaqembu ngokuvamile anelungelo lokudlulisa icala enkantolo ephakeme. Ukuhlola kwezehlulelo kuqinisekisa ukuthi inxusa alithathi ngokomthetho noma aliweqi igunya lalo elingokomthetho. Ezizweni eziningi, ukubukezwa kwenkantolo kulinganiselwe emibuzoni yomthetho, hhayi iqiniso, kodwa ngisho nalokhu kubukezwa okuncane kuyisivikelo esibalulekile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ibhodi eliphethe inqaba iphika imvume ngaphandle kokuchaza ukucabanga kwayo, inkantolo ingalibuyisela icala emuva ukuze kuthathwe isinqumo esifanelekile. Ngaphandle kokubukezwa kokwahlulela, izinhlangano zezongawugwebo ngokuphumelelayo umthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngenqubo efanelekile yomphakathi ezindaweni ezinjengomsebenzi nezindlu, umqondisi [we-ACLU] enqubweni efanele yezenzo zikahulumeni [[FLT: 1] unikeza izibonelo eziwusizo.

Izinselele Zamalungelo Okusebenza

Naphezu komthetho-sisekelo, amaMelika amaningi abhekene nemingcele yangempela yokuthola intuthuko egcwele yokuvikela. Lezinselele zibhalwe kahle futhi zifuna ukunakwa abakhi bemithetho, abameleli, nezakhamuzi.

Ukuntuleka Kokufinyelela Incazelo Engokomthetho

Olunye usongo olubaluleke kakhulu enqubweni efanele ukuhluleka kwabantu abathola imali ephansi ukuthenga ummeli. Ezindabeni zobugebengu, abavikeli bomphakathi bayatholakala, kodwa la mahhovisi ngokuvamile ahlala ekhucululwa futhi esebenza ngokweqile, okuholela ekutheni u-chateo[ ukuphika usizo olusebenzayo. Kuwo wonke amacala omphakathi, lapho kungekho ngokomthetho onelungelo lokunikeza iseluleko esikhululekile, futhi inkinga ikhulu kakhulu. Abaqashi abampofu babhekene nommeli, abazali balahlekelwa ilungelo lokuhlala ngaphandle kommelelo, futhi abanecala bancishwa ngaphandle kokuqonda amalungelo abo. “uGideyoni u-cl" uqhubele phambili izimo zosizo ezingokomthetho, kodwa uqhubekela kancane.

Ubandlululo Ehlelweni Esingokomthetho

Ubandlululo oluqondile nolucacile lungathinta zonke izigaba zenqubo engokomthetho. Ukuhlola kubonisa ukuthi abamangalelwa abaNsundu nababhishobhi base-Hispanic basengozini kakhulu yokuvalelwa ngaphambi komthetho, bathole imigwebo emide, futhi babekwe icala elingathi sína kunabamangalelwa abamhlophe abamangalelwa ngamacala afanayo. Ubandlululo lwezinhlanga lungathinta futhi ukukhethwa kwamajaji, naphezu kokuvinjelwa komthetho wezentengiselwano, ukukhubazeka, ukukhubazeka, nobulili obungaholela ekuphathweni ngendlela engafani. Lokhu kululaza isithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho futhi kuphikisana nomoya wenqubo efanelekile.

Izinkantolo Ezithwele Imithwalo Enzima Nezinyathelo Ezisheshayo

Isifundazwe nezindawo eziningi zibhekene nezinkantolo ezinkulu. Abahluleli bangase babe nemizuzu embalwa nje yokuhlela icala ngalinye, futhi ukunxusa kuba indlela enephutha kunokuba kuhlolwe ngokucophelela ubufakazi. Enkantolo yomgwaqo, enkantolo yendlu yabaphathi, kanye nokufuna okuncane, ukucindezela kokulungisa amacala kungaholela ekuqulweni ngokushesha lapho abathathi-cala bengatholi zwi. Umqedazwe we-COVOVID-19 wazifaka kulezinkinga; kuyilapho ukuzwa kwazenza izinkantolo zivumele ukuba zihlale zivuliwe, futhi zadala izinselele zokufinyelela kwezobuchwepheshe, ukuqonda, nokungagweboleki kwenkantolo.

Ukungenela Ngokwemithetho Nokuqondisa

Izenzo zikahulumeni ezidlula inqubo engokwesiko ezizivikelayo ezingokwenqubo ngokwemvelo − njengemiyalo ephethe efaka imali eqanda ngaphandle kwesaziso, noma imithetho evimbela amalungelo ezindawo ezisebenzayo ekuqinisweni kokufuduka − ibhekene nenselele yomthetho-sisekelo. Eminyakeni yamuva, izimpikiswano ngenqubo efaneleyo emakolishi (ezenzweni ezingokobulili obuxekethile), ekuxoxiseni izimemezelo, futhi ezimweni zokulondeka kwesizwe eziye zaqokomisa ukungezwani phakathi kwempumelelo, ukuphepha, nokulunga. Ngokwesibonelo, iziqondiso DOJ ngenqubo efanelekile yezentekozokwelapha ngengqondo yezempikiswano zempilo [] zinikeza ukuqonda ukuthi lezintengo eziyinkimbinkimbi zezentekozohwebo-o-offoter.

Isiphetho

Amalungelo okusebenza akuyona imiqondo engokomthetho engaqondakali − amathuluzi awusizo avikela wonke umuntu eqenjini likahulumeni. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uhlanganyela ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu, ucela izinzuzo zikahulumeni, ubhekene nokuxoshwa, noma umane uphenywe amaphoyisa, ukuqonda lamalungelo kwenza umehluko phakathi kokuphathwa ngenhlonipho nokuvinjelwa ngesimiso esivame ukuthatha ijubane elingaphezu kokulunga.

Njengesakhamuzi, ungasekela inqubo edinga ukumiswa ngokusekela izinhlelo zosizo olungokomthetho, ngokuvotela abahluleli abasekela lezi sivikelo, nangokuhlala benolwazi ngomthetho ohlongozwayo ongase wehlise imingcele engokwesiko. Izimiso ezibekwe ezinziwa ezinzisweni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ziyingxenye yefa lethu; ukudumisa kudinga ukuqapha nokuzimisela ukulingana kubo bonke.