Amalungelo oMthetho-sisekelo eqenjini: Izibonelo zezwe langempela

UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, unikeza isakhiwo sikahulumeni kahulumeni ngesikhathi esifanayo ubeka imingcele eqinile emandleni awo ngesivikelo samalungelo abantu. Ukuqonda lamalungelo angaqondakaliyo kudinga ukuhlolwa kwendlela asebenza ngayo ezimpikiswaneni zezwe langempela. Lokhu kusekelwe ezinkantolo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezivelele, ukuphikisana nemibono, nokusabela komthetho kokuthi izimiso ezibanzi zeBhili lamaLungelo zinikezwa incazelo eqinisekile. Ukusuka esikoleni ukuya ku-screamfone, isivikelo somthetho esiphikiswana abasunguli siyaqhubeka silungisa ukuphila kwesakhamuzi ngasinye. Lesiqondiso sihlola ukuphenduzwa kwemizwa kwe-lenslans, sihlola izinqumo ezivelele eziye zachaza izinga lazo futhi zithinta umphakathi waseMelika.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Itshe Lokuhlanganyela Kwentando Yeningi

UNothi: Isichibiyeli sokuqala siqinisekisa inkululeko emihlanu ehlobene: inkolo, inkulumo, ukunyathelisa, umhlangano, nelungelo lokunxusa uhulumeni. Lamalungelo aklanyelwe ukukhuthaza ukudayisa imibono obala nokuvikela unembeza womuntu ngamunye ekuphoqelweni uhulumeni.

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Neyokubonakaliswa

Inkulumo edumile yenkulumo yabafundi ivela ku-. .[FUNT] .Des Moine Independent School District [[FLT] [169]. NgoDecember 1965, iqembu labafundi eDes Moines, i-Iowa, kuhlanganise noMary weminyaka engu-13 ubudala uBeth Tinker, wafaka ihlombelo olumnyama esikoleni ukuze avukele iMpi yaseVietnam. Isikole, isoyika ukuphazamiseka, i-mende. Inkantolo Ephakeme yalawula ngokuvuna abafundi. Umthetho weSikhathi seze kabanzi, wabhala izimpawu, wahambisa i-Mipayini yomthetho abafundi abangayenzi eveza inkululeko yabo yesikole noma esikhululweni sesikoleni." Isikhulu seNkalela abafundi kuphela ukuthi isikhulu seze futhi sivinye isikhulu seze amashumi eminyaka sezezwe seze ukumelana nakubhishoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshosho yezezwe.

Isivikelo seSichibiyelo Sokuqala sidlulela kakhulu ngalé kwesikole. . Johnson [19989], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukushisa ifulege laseMelika njengendlela yokubhikisela impikiswano engokomfanekiso. Lesi sinqumo sabangela ukuphikisana kwesizwe nokuncishwana komthetho ngokomthetho. Muva nje, inkathi yonyaka iye yadala imingcele emisha yokukhuluma. [FLT][5][5]. I-Plactham. I-North [FLT:][FL:][FLT] [25]] [7] [0] [inkantolo ye-Genethilogoriclo], ishaya umthetho owenqabelayo ewena ukuthi i-indawo yezenhlalo" ne-"'isimanje i-Faceactedmatic"

Inkululeko Yenkolo

Ukumiswa kuka-Claus nohlelo lwe-Free Exes Claus kusebenza nge-tanide ukuze kuvikelwe inkululeko engokwenkolo. Engel v. Vitale [[FLT]] [62], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi umthandazo obhalwe ngombuso oshiwoyo ezikoleni zomphakathi waphula i-Clausce, ngisho noma umthandazo wawungeyokuzithandela futhi ungekho hlelo. ISikole samaJaji iHugo Black sathi "akuyona ingxenye yebhizinisi likahulumeni ukuqamba imithandazo engokomthetho yanoma iliphi iqembu labantu baseMelika ukuba bashone. Lokhu kwaphindaphindwa ezikoleni [[FLD:] [FLD] ngaphansi kwemikhankathi yemidlalo ekhululekile.[5] [FT] [2] Isikoleni ekhululekile] [FFT] [2] [2], lapho ingekho imvume yemidlalo yemidlalo yezezezezesikole, imidlalo yemidlalo yemidlalo yemidlalo yemidlalo,

[[UMTL:0] Funda i-Tinker egcwele v.Des Moines isinqumo ku-Oyez

ISichibiyelo Sesibili: Umuntu Ngamunye unelungelo lokuqhathanisa Ukuphepha Komphakathi

Ingxenye enkulu yekhulu lama-20, iSichibiyelo Sesibili sahlolwa ngokulinganiselwe eNkantolo Ephakeme. INkantolo ngokomlando yahlanganisa ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali nenkonzo ebuthweni elilawulwa kahle, njengoba kubonakala ku [FLT]] United States v. Miller[FLT] [1939]. Le ncazelo yaqala kakhulu ekhulwini lama-21.

IHeller NeMcDonald Revolution

I-Diverlation of Columbia v. Helter[FLT] [2008] [2008], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sesibili sivikela umuntu ilungelo lokuba nento yokuzidubula ngempoqo, engahlangene nenkonzo yezobusosha. [Kuyisinqumo esingu-5-4 esaqanjwa nguMahluleli u-Anton Scilla, iNkantolo yaphendula yebo, ishaya i-ebon'uniza i-mbhamu Washington D.[FFF]. [5] [5] INkantolo yesandla sokuvika. [5] iNkantolo yeSikhathi seNkathi seNkantolo yeSikhathi sokudlalo], i-Gcoume ngokumelene nemithetho ye-Ediyodwa nemithetho ye-Esterydmist Troupt] ishopt, i-Estsonson, ishoshosholor Reviced

Isimiso Sonya Nemiphumela Yaso

Intuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu eSichibiyelweni Sesibili yafika eNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen. INkantolo yashaya i- jul:222]. Imfuneko "efanele" yokuphatha isibhamu esifihliwe obala. IJaji Thomas lamisa uvivinyo olusha: imithetho yesibhamu yesimanje kumelwe ibe "isekela isiko esingokomlando sesizwe sokunqabela izibhamu." Lombhalo, umlando, nokuhlola isiko kuye kwasetshenziswa kusukela ekubekeleni izinkantolo eziphansi ukubekela inseleleka imithetho ebanzi yezibhamu, kuhlanganise nokuvinjelwa kwabantu ngabanye ukuze babambe ubudlova. [FT][4]

[ Funda isinqumo se-Bruen (PDF) engosini yeNkantolo Ephakeme

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukuba Wedwa Enkathini Yezobuchwepheshe

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela "ilungelo labantu lokulondeka kubantu babo, ezindlini, emaphepheni, nasemiphumeleni, ekuphenyeni okungacabangeki kanye nasekuqulekeni." Okuyikona okuwukuhlola "okungenangqondo" kuye kwashintsha kakhulu njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintshile.

Ithemba Elinengqondo Lokuba Wedwa

Ukuhlolwa kwesisekelo seSichibiyelo sesine seSiphendulo kwamiswa [FLT][FLT] v. United States [1967]. UCharles Katz wabekwa icala lokugembula okungekho emthethweni ngemva kokunamathisela i-FBI umshini olalelayo ngaphandle kwendlu yocingo yomphakathi. Inkantolo yagumbuqela ithole ukuthi isenzo sikahulumeni sakha "sesha" ngaphansi kweSiphendulo Sesine. Umthetho uJohn Harlan u-Harlan II wavumelana ne-PGenerace u-ftivey: umuntu kumelwe abe "owayibeke isiqinisekiso esingokoqobo" futhi ulindele "ukubekwa emphakathini okufanelekile" ukubukwa kwale ndawo."

Imininingwane Yamangqamuzana Nezingcingo Zamangqamuzana

Ekhulwini lama-21, iNkantolo iye yazama ukusebenzisa iSichibiyelo sesine ekwazisweni kwezezibalo. Riley v. California [[2014, iNkantolo inqume ngazwi linye ukuthi amaphoyisa adinga imvume yokuhlola izenzakalo zocingo olubambene nocingo olubambekile. IJaji elikhulu uJohn Roberts wabhala ukuthi izingcingo aziyona nje enye indlela yobuchwepheshe engcono kakhulu yokuthola ulwazi lomuntu siqu] futhi ukuthi isilinganiso esikhulu semininingwane yabo siqukethe isilinganiso esiphakeme sesivikelo.

Ku Amakharenti v. United States[FLT] [2017], iNkantolo iqhubekela phambili, ikhipha isiqinisekiso sokuthi uhulumeni ufuna isiqinisekiso sokuthola ulwazi lwe-cell-ssion (CSLI) ephethwe yisithwali sentambo. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi abantu banokulindela okunengqondo kwemfihlo kuzo zonke izinhlangano zabo ezingokomzimba, ngisho noma leyo mininingwane ihlangene neqembu lesithathu (inkampani yocingo). Le nkolelo "yobuzwelodwa" yemfihlo isikisela ukuthi owedwa, ulwazi olude lwezintambo zokuthutha. Ukuvikela komuntu, ukushukuma kwe-Dinjini yesine.

Funda okwengeziwe ngemfihlo yamanani ewebhusayithi ye-Electronic Frontial Foundation (EFF)[[FL:1]

Isichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Inqubo, Isivikelo, Nokuziphikisa

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu sinikeza iqoqo lamalungelo agxekayo: ilungelo elimelene nokuzibeka phansi, isiqinisekiso senqubo efanele, isivikelo engozini ephindwe kabili, nemfuneko yokukhokha nje ngokuthatha impahla yangasese.

Ilungelo Lokuhlala Uthule

Isici esidumile seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sisuka ku imanda v. Arizona[FLT]] (1966]. u-Erneto Miranda waboshwa ngenxa yokuthumba nokudlwengula. Ngemva kwamahora amabili okuphenywa, wasayina isivumelo esibhaliwe esihlanganisa ukuvuma ukuthi wayazi amalungelo akhe. INkantolo Ephakeme yawaguqula ukuqiniseka kwakhe, ibambe ukuthi ukuphenywa kwecala kungokwemvelo kungokwemvelo. IJaji elinguMphathi u-Earl Warrenrenren yabekwa ngaphandle kwe-iconic "Malia ne-ukudlwengula isixwayiso:"zwezwezwezwe ukuthi ngaphansi kwesigaba sokugqila.[F][4]

Inqubo Nenkululeko Eyinqaba

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu EsiyiNdlela ka-Claus (nesinye seSichibiyelo seshumi nane) asivikeli nje kuphela ubulungisa obungokwemvelo kodwa futhi namalungelo angaphansi. Imfundiso yeNdlela yokuBuyisela iSikhawulo iSinyathelo seSinqumo isetshenziselwa ukuvikela inkululeko eyisisekelo engahlelwanga ngokomthetho embhalweni. Nakuba kwakuphikisana kakhulu, kwakuyisisekelo selungelo lokufihla imfihlo [FLT]] glold v. Connecticut[FLT][195] [195]] kanye nelungelo elifanayo lomshado [FL:][5][5][5]

Ukuthatha UClaus

IsiHluzi sesihlanu siphetha ngokuthatha u-Iars Claus: "Nayo impahla yomuntu siqu izothathwa ukuze isetshenziswe umphakathi, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo." Lesi sigqebhezana sifuna uhulumeni ukuba akhokhe inani elifanele lezentengiselwano lapho ithatha impahla endaweni edumile. Isilinganiso "somphakathi" sachazwa kabanzi [[FLT][1] . Idolobha laseNew London[FLT][FLT][2005]], lapho iNkantolo yavumela khona idolobha ukuba lithathe impahla yangasese yenze icebo lokuthuthukisa izomnotho, liveza ukuthi izinzuzo zezomnotho emphakathini zisetshenziswa emphakathini.

Isichibiyelo Sesithupha: Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala Okufanele

ISichibiyelo Sesithupha siqinisekisa iqoqo lamalungelo aklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala lobugebengu ngendlela engakhethi, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala ngokushesha nangomphakathi, iqembu labahluleli elingakhethi, ukuba laziswe ngamacala, ukuyokhuluma nofakazi nokuthola usizo lweseluleko.

Ilungelo Elibalulekile Leseluleko

Indaba ephawulekayo lapha ingu . Gedeon v. Wainwright [1963]. UClarence Earl Gideon wayengumphambukeli ompofu obekwe ngokuphululela egumbini lokulala eFlorida. Wayengamniki ummeli, wacela inkantolo ukuba ammisele omunye. Inkantolo yenqabe, futhi uGideyoni waphoqelelwa ukuba avikele futhi walahlwa icala. Engqamukelwa yijele lakhe, wabhala isicelo esibhalwe ngesandla esiya eNkabeni Ephakeme. Inkantolo yathatha icala futhi yanquma ngazwilinye ukuthi izigwebo zecala ze-6 zelungelo ukuba zinikezelwe ukuqulwa, futhi izimo ezidingwayo zidingeniswa imvume esemthethweni ukuba anikeze ummeli wobugebengu.[F] [F] [5]

UKhisimusi Umelene

ISiphendulo seSithandathu siqinisekisa futhi ukuthi iSiphendulo seSithandathu siwushintsha ngokuqondiswe ngokomthetho "ukubhekana nofakazi abamelene naye. [[FLT]][FLT] [[FLT]] [2004], iNkantolo yawushintsha umthetho ngokuyisisekelo ngokuphathelene namahemu noma ubufakazi. Ummangalelwa, uMichael Crawford, wamangalelwa ngokuhlasela futhi wazama ukubulala. Inkantolo yafakaza inkulumo ebhalwe ngekhasethi ebhalwe ngomkakhensini wakhe, uSylvia, owafaka ubufakazi bokuthethwa ngobugebengu kodwa ongafakazanga ekuzameni (ukunikeza ilungelo lomshado). Inkantolo ephakeme yanquma ukuthi uSylvia uclaus. Inkantolo yayithi "uhlengamele" i-heah" ayinakuvunywa ngaphandle kokuba i-ufakazi becala elibekwe phambi kwecala.[Fod][4]

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

ISichibiyelo sesishiyagalombili senqabela ibheyili eqile, ukuhlawuliswa ngokweqile, "isijeziso esingavamile" iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawachaza ngokungaguquki lamazwi ngelens "yezindinganiso ezibonisa ukuziphatha okuhle okuphawula intuthuko yomphakathi okhulayo"

Ukufa Kuyophela

ISichibiyelo Sesibhozo siye saba sisekelo sempikiswano yesizwe ngesijeziso sentambo. Furman v. Georgia[[FLT]][1972], iNkantolo yanquma enqumweni engu-5-4 ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwesigwebo sokufa ngokusemthethweni, ikakhulukazi isigaba saso sobuhlanga, kwasenza sasusa umehluko njengaleyo nqubo. Isinqumo saziqeda ngokuphumelelayo zonke izigwebo eUnited States. Iminyaka emine kamuva, [[FLT:] [FLT:][FLT] v [FLD:].[FLT][FL:6][6][9] [6], [7], iNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkathi entsha eqondiswe i-BLE.[7] [inkantolo eqondiswe ngokuqondiswa kwezekelelwa isigwebo sezenyuko]

Kusukela [[FLT:] , iNkantolo ibeke imingcele ephelele ku-ongase ibulawe. Attins v. Virginia[[[FLT:][2002] [iNkantolo] [iNkantolo], yanquma ukuthi abantu ababenza abantu abakhubazekile ebuhlakanini baphula iSiphendulo Sesibhozo. [[FLT:][FLT]].[imon[[[FLT:][5:][2005], iNkantolo yenze , iphethe ukuthi abantu abasebenza ngezenzo zobugebengu (ezinziwa'ikhulu])

Izimo Zasejele Nezinhle Ngokweqile

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili sisebenza nasezimweni zokuvalelwa kanye nasezivumelwaneni zezomnotho. [[FLT]] Timbs v. Indiana [2017], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi iSigqi Samanyusi Esingamashumi Amasishiyagalombili u-Eviles Recons Claus usebenza ezindaweni (ukuhlanganyela). Ngaleyondlela, isifundazwe sase-Indiana sasifuna ukuthatha iZwe lomuntu i-Ruv, elilingana no-$UV, ngemva kokuba abekwe icala lokuthengisa isilinganiso esincane se-heroin. INkantolo yathi ukulahlekelwa okuyigugu okunjalo okusekelwe empahleni yezidakamizwa kungasusa kakhulu ukusetshenziswa kwezelulekwa nokunga.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isivikelo Senkululeko Nokulingana

Isiphequlo: Akukho ukudingidwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthetho okuphelele ngaphandle kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, esagunyazwa ngo-1868. Nakuba iBill of Rights ekuqaleni yayiwulinganisela uhulumeni kahulumeni, iSichibiyelo se 144 seSiphendu se-Grandement ngokuyisisekelo saguqula lesi sakhiwo. I-'Cearting Proces Claus'' ibiyimoto eyinhloko "ukuhlanganisa" iBill of Rights ngokumelene nezifundazwe, futhi ukuvikela kwayo okulinganayo kuye kwaba isisekelo sokunqoba okukhulu kwamalungelo ezakhamuzi emlandweni waseMelika.

Ukuquliswa Kwecala: Ukwenza Amalungelo Asebenza E - United States

Inqubo yokuhlanganisa yaqala kancane. INkantolo yaqala ukusebenzisa isigqebhezana sokukhuluma sokuqala esikhululekile ezifundeni [FLT]] [FTY] Getlow v. New York [1925]. Ngekhulu elilandelayo, cishe yonke isivikelo kuMalungelo sasifakwa ngokukhetha ezifundazweni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi iphoyisa laseCalifornia noma ibhodi lesikole eTexascle liboshwe umthetho-ogconomet kanye nohulumeni wezwelonke. Ukuhlanganiswa kweSimende Sesibili [FLDN:] [FLDN].[FONT] [FLD][FLD] [FLD] [5] [20]) futhi izinqulumo zamuva kakhulu]

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Namalungelo Omphakathi

I-Umedial Protection Claus yeSichibiyelo se-14th Reformation iyala ukuthi akukho mbuso ozothi "ulondeke kunoma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lawo ukuvikelwa okulinganayo kwemithetho." Lolu hlu lwezikhali olungokomthetho olwalusetshenziselwa ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga. Brown v. Ibhodi lemfundo yemfundo[FLT] [[FLT]] [1954]] [1964] [iNkakhulu leNkantolo] [iNkantolo], ihlangene nemithetho emisa isigaba sezikompompompo ezinsweyo zomphakathi zemfundo, ibuye inqume ukuthi i-" i-"alls of produzerse "ementation" i-negro" i-ne-ne-'earthro produktions.[Foct:] v[FL:5]] [FL:5]]] [18]).

Isivikelo esilinganayo u-Claus siye saba futhi isisekelo sezinqumo ezingokobulili eziphawulekayo ezithinta ubulili. [FLT] United States v. Virginia[FLT] [1966], eyabulala umthetho wabesilisa kuphela eVirginia Meendary Institute. [2011], owagunyaza umshado ofanayo nowekhulu lama-21:[FLT:][FLT][5] [OFT] wehlelabroll v. Hodges[FL:[FLT:][12][12] [12] [25], owenziwe ngomthetho osemthethweni-expressoctives [exF]

Funda okwengeziwe ngemfundiso yokuHlanganisa yaseCornell Law School [

Isiphetho: UMthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo Osebenzayo

Amalungelo abekwe e-United States Constitution awawona amalungelo aqinile abekwe ngekhulu le-18. Ayisivikelo esinamandla esidinga ukuchazwa njalo nokusetshenziswa ezintweni ezikhona ekuphileni kwaseMelika. Kusukela emahlombeni amnyama eDes Moines kuya kumakhalekhukhwini ethu, izimiso zeBill of Rights zibusa izici eziseduze kakhulu nezisobala zokuphila kwethu. Amacala ahlolwa lapha amane ayisibonelo esincane sengxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwezinkantolo, uhulumeni, nabantu. Kubafundisi nabafundi ngokufanayo, ukuhileleka kulezi zibonelo zangempela, kubalulekile ukuqonda ukulinganisela okungathi ngokomthetho phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Izehlulele lezi zingabo abagcina amalungelo angokomthetho. Izikhulu ezigcina lezi zilungile akuzona nje izikhulu ezingokomthetho zase-Washington, kodwa ziqonda izikhulu zabo ezifuna isivikelo nezakhamuzi.