Umlando wamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo wamalungelo amancane uyisici esiyinkimbinkimbi esibonisa izindinganiso zomphakathi ezishintshayo. Kuwo wonke umlando, amaqembu amancane ahlukahlukene aye alwela ukuqashelwa nokuvikelwa ngaphansi komthetho, okuholela ezinguqulweni ezinkulu ezingokomthetho-mthetho. Lolu hambo alwembuli intuthuko eyenziwayo kuphela kodwa nezigebe ezingapheli ezisele. Ukuqonda lesi sikhawu esingokomlando kubalulekile kunoma ubani ozimisele ukwakha uhlelo oluphelele nolulungile olungokomthetho. Kusukela emithethweni yasendulo kuya ezinqumweni zenkantolo zanamuhla, ukulwela amalungelo amancane kuye kwayiguqula ngokuphindaphindiwe incazelo yemithetho engokomthetho.

Isisekelo Sangaphambili Samalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Umqondo wamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo unezimpande ezijulile ezimisweni zomthetho zasendulo, ngisho noma leyomithetho yakuqala ingabhekisi ngokuqondile isivikelo esincane njengoba sisaziqonda namuhla. Nokho, lezizisekelo zamisa izimiso eziyinhloko zezimiso zomthetho, inqubo efanele, nomqondo wokuthi umthetho kufanele waziwe obala .

Umthetho KaHammurabi

Ukuthatha umthetho kaHammurabi cishe ngo-1754 BCE, umthetho kaHammurabi ungomunye wemithetho ebhalwe phansi ebhalwe phansi ebhalwe yonke. Wasungula isimiso sokuthi imithetho kufanele isetshenziswe ngokulinganayo ngaphesheya kwezigaba zezenhlalo ezihlukene, nakuba isebenza ngokunikeza izijeziso ezinzima kubantu abaphansi. Naphezu kokungalingani kwawo, lomthetho wamisa isimiso sokuthi imithetho ingaqiniswa futhi iphoqelelwe yigunya elikhulu, isimo esidingekile kunoma yiziphi izivikelo zomthetho-sisekelo esikhathini esizayo.

Umthetho WaseRoma Netafula Leshumi Nambili

IRome Republic yakhiqiza amaThemetri ali-12 (c. 450 BCE), ayebhalwe ebronzeni futhi eboniswe obala. Lokhu kubonakala kwaqinisekisa ukuthi zonke izakhamuzi zazingawazi umthetho, zinciphise amandla azimele e-patricia. Abahluleli bamaRoma kamuva basungula imiqondo yomthetho wemvelo kanye [[FLT:] ne [FLT] i-intium[[[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [ingumthetho] [owe-"odwa] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [ist:] wanikeza isigaba esicwenziwe sazococonga emakhulwini eminyaka.

UMagna Carta Nembewu Yenqubo Efanele

Ngo-1215, uMagna Carta wathola ukuthi inkosi yayingangaphezu komthetho nokuthi abantu abakhululekile babenelungelo lokwahlulela ontanga yabo. Nakuba yayivikeleke ngokuyinhloko izithakazelo ze-baronalial, izigaba 39 no-40(-) ukunikeza inqubo efanelekile nobulungisa obulinganayo, kwaba yizisekelo zezizathu zamuva ezimelene nesenzo sombuso esiwumthetho. Izinqolobane zesizwe ziphethe ikhophi [ ebonisa indlela le mbhalo obeka ngayo isibonelo sokuhlukanisa amandla kahulumeni.

Ifilosofi Yokukhanyiselwa Namalungelo Emvelo

Ikhulu leshumi nanye neleshumi nanhlanu leminyaka kwabonwa izazi zefilosofi ezinjengoJohn Locke noJean-Jacques Rousseau ziphikisa ngokuthi abantu banamalungelo efa angekho uhulumeni angawaphula. Umthetho-sisekelo we-Locke's ISiphakamiso Esibili sikaHulumeni[ [1689]) waqinisekisa amalungelo okuphila, inkululeko, nempahla. Lemiqondo yathonya ngokuqondile abasunguli baseMelika kanye nokubunjwa kwe-U.S.

Ukuvukela KwaseMelika Nesiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu

INguquko yaseMelika yayiyisikhathi esiphoqelekile ekuqapheleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye. ISimemezelo senkululeko samemezela ukuthi “bonke abantu badalwe belingana,” kodwa ekuqaleni uMthetho-sisekelo wahluleka ukuwatholela amalungelo amancane. Ukuthathwa kweBill of Rights ngo-1791 kwasho isinyathelo esibalulekile, nakuba isivikelo sawo sasingasetshenziswa emhlabeni wonke.

Umhlangano Womthetho - sisekelo Nokuhlehla Kwabantu Abantathu

Phakathi noMhlangano we - 1787, izihambeli ezazivela ezindaweni ezigodlela abantu izigqila zaphikelela ukuba zibale abantu abagqilazwe njengezigqila njengezingalo ezintathu kumuntu ukuze zithathwe futhi zikhokhwe intela. Lokhu kuhlehlisa ukungafani kwezinhlanga kwafaka encwadini yokusungula kwesizwe. Kwayithatha kancane futhi indaba yobugqila ngokwabo, kuqinisekisa izingxabano ezizayo.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala Nenkulumo Encane

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala samiswa ngo-1791, saqinisekisa inkululeko yokukhuluma, yenkolo, yezindaba, yesifunda, nesicelo. Nakuba ekuqaleni sasihunyushwa ukuze sivikele kuphela ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni, kamuva saba ithuluzi lokuba abantu abambalwa bagxeke ukucindezelwa. Abashisekeli bemibono, amaphephandaba, nabashisekeli bamalungelo omphakathi bonke banxuse iSichibiyelo sokuqala sokusakaza amapheshana, ukuhlela ukubhikisha, nokugxeka uhulumeni. Soundme Cauvern Commissionssion Icala leNkantolo yeSikhundla] i - mbumbulu i-Masterackshop [florect:2] Commission Rights [[FLT]][FLT] [[FLT]]

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu Nenqubo Efanele

Inqubo yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu efanelekile yenqabela uhulumeni kahulumeni ukuba anciphe noma yimuphi umuntu “ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Yavikela futhi ekuzihlukaniseni kanye nasengozini ephindwe kabili. Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sadlulisela lezisivikelo kuhulumeni, senza inqubo efanele yamalungelo amancane abekwa isisekelo.

Ikhulu Le - 19: Ukwandisa Amalungelo

Izinhlangano zeNguquko zabekela inselele izakhiwo ezingokomthetho ezazingawavumeli ukuba abe yizakhamuzi eziphelele, zawaqaphela ngokwengeziwe amaqembu ezindawo ezivikelwe umthetho, ikakhulukazi amaMelika nabesifazane abagqilaziwe base - Afrika.

Inhlangano Yezobuhlanga Neziphendulo Zokuvuselela

Abashisekeli benkululeko njengoFrederick Douglas noWilliam Lloyd Garrison baphikisa ngokuthi ubugqila benqaba yesithembiso soMthetho-sisekelo senkululeko. IMpi Yomphakathi yaqeda ubugqila, futhi iReconstructions (1865), ye 14th (168), neyeshumi elinesihlanu (1870), neyayizimisele ukuvikela inkululeko, ubuzwe, nokuvota amalungelo abaNsundu. ISiphendulo se 14 seSiphendulo saba ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu kumalungelo amancane emlandweni waseMelika. Kodwa isithembiso sika-Constannon salulazwa ngokushesha yimithetho ye-Crow neNkantolo Ephakeme [[FLT:].[FLT] V[FLT: [FLP][FLD] [FLT] [3] [5] [5] [5] [5] [5]

Ukuhamba Kwabesifazane Ngenkani

Abashisekeli bamalungelo abesifazane, abaholwa nguSusan B. Anthony noElizabeth Cady Stanton, baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wanikeza abesifazane ilungelo lokuvota ngamalungelo eSichibiyelo sekhulu seshumi nanye noma izinombolo zokugoma. INkantolo Ephakeme yakwenqaba lokhu kuphikisa [ku-] Minor v. Happers [ [1875], iqhubela phambili umkhankaso wamashumi eminyaka angu-17 [amashumi amathathu] wokulungisa inguquko. ISiphendumiso sekhulu sekhulu se-19, sagunyaza ngo-1920, ekugcineni sayenqabela ukucwa kwevota okusekelwe ebulilini, kodwa abesifazane abaningi bembala baqhubeka bebhekene phambi kokuxoxa i-trankment kusuka kwabango-1960.

Ukusulwa Kwamalungelo Esivumelwano Nokwethulwa Komdabu BaseMelika

Ikhulu le-19 labona futhi ukususwa okuphoqelelwe kwezizwe zamaMelika Omdabu emazweni azo okhokho, ngokuvamile kuthethelelwa yi-Indiya Commerce Claus nesivumelwano se-Constitution. [FLT][FLT]] `Isizwe se-Cheroke v. Georgia[FLT] [31] [1831] [i-PLT] [FLT]] [i]] [i-Worcester v. Georgia[ [1832]]) iziphakatho ezisungulwe izizwe ezincikelwe “zinye izifunda,” isikhundla esiqhubeka sibumba umthetho wesizwe nesizwe.

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Ezakhamuzi

I - Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 no 1960 yayiyisikhathi esibalulekile emlandweni waseMelika. Yadalula igebe phakathi kwesiqinisekiso somthetho - sisekelo kanye nobuqiniso baseMelika abaNsundu, futhi yaphoqelela uhulumeni ukuba amise umthetho oguqulayo.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (11954)

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sokuvumelana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yahlehla [[FLT:] Pnety v. Ferguson, imemezela ukuthi “izemfundo ezihlukene azilingani.” Isinqumo sancike kumthetho weSiphetho se 14 sesivikelo esilinganayo nobufakazi obungokwesayensi ngezingozi zomthetho. [[FLT:] Iprojekthi ye-Oyct inikeza imininingwane egcwele yecala [, kuhlanganise nezici zengqoko zengqoko yezehluleko yesizwe.

Umthetho Ka - 1964 Wamalungelo Abantu

Lomthetho omkhulu wenqabela ukucwaswa kwezindawo zomphakathi zokulala, umsebenzi, nezinhlelo ezixhaswa uhulumeni ezisekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, noma umsuka wesizwe. Wawusekelwe emandleni oMkhandlu ngaphansi kwe-Communic Clausse neSichibiyelo se-14. Isihloko VII sasungula i-Uncible Accomplication Commission, eyaqhubeka imisa imithetho enqanda ukuhlukana kwemisebenzi.

Umthetho Ka - 1965 Wokulwela Amalungelo Abantu

Ngemva kohambo olunobudlova “lweSonto” eSelma, e-Alabama, uMkhandlu wadlulisa uMthetho Wezikhundla Zokuvota Ongenamthetho, owawuvimbela imikhuba yokuvota ewumthetho njengokuhlola ukufunda nokuvota. Ingxenye 5 yadinga amagunya athile anomlando wobandlululo ukuze ithole ukuhlelwa kusengaphambili kukahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. Isinqumo sika-2013 seNkantolo yokuvota Shelby County v. Raker[FLT] [FLT]] salula kakhulu lesi lungiselelo, sikhipha izimpikiswano ezivuselelwe ngokuvota.

Izinombolo Eziyinhloko Nezimpande Ezinomsila Ezizishintshayo

Abaholi abanjengoMartin Luther King Jr., uRosa Parks, noJohn Lewis bamisa inhlangano eyayisebenzisa ukungalaleli okungenabudlova komphakathi ukuze ifune amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo.

Intuthuko Yanamuhla Emalungelo Amancane

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, ukwanda kwamalungelo omthetho - sisekelo kuye kwaqhubeka kuhlanganisa amaqembu aye akhishwa ngaphandle noma ancishiswa ngaphambili. izinqumo nezinguquko zenqubo kuye kwakhuluma ngamalungelo e - LGBTQ, isivikelo sabafuduki, amalungelo okukhubazeka nenkululeko engokwenkolo.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [564] secala sawa ngokomthetho umshado ofanayo wobulili ezweni lonke, siphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo se 14 senqubo nemithetho elinganayo yesivikelo iqinisekisa ilungelo lokushada ngemibhangqwana efanayo engu-76sex. Isinqumo esakhiwe emacalani okuqala njengaye Lawrence v. Texas [2003], eyabulala imithetho ye-sodoma. Nakuba umshado ofanayo we-656x manje uvikelwe, LGBT+ abantu ngabanye basabhekene nobandlululo emakhaya, emsebenzini, nasezindaweni zomphakathi ezihlala ezifundelwayo.

Amalungelo Abafuduki Ne - DACA

Ngo-2012, uMongameli Obama wakha uhlelo lweNkantolo Yomthetho yobuntwana, olunikeza isivikelo sesikhashana ekuthunjweni nasekutholeni izisebenzi ezingekho eU.S. njengezingane. U-DACA uye wabhekana nezinselele ezingokomthetho eziphindaphindiwe, nesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme . [] ukuvikelwa kwe Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California[FLT] [20] [20]) ukuthi ukuphatha kwaphinde kwazama futhi ukuqulwa kweNkadensi. Uhlelo luhlala luyindawo ephakathi kwempikiswano yamandla ombuso we-bukhompulumeni kanye nelungelo labangango-1965659.

Amalungelo Okuwohloka Ne - ADA

AmaMelika anoMthetho woBukhu (ADA) ka-1990 anqabela ukucwaswa kwabantu abakhubazekile kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi. Iqoshwe ngemva koMthetho wamalungelo abantu, yaqinisekisa ukuvunyelwa okulingana kwemisebenzi, izinkonzo zomphakathi, nezindawo zokulala. I-ADA yaqhutshwa yiqembu elikhulu labameleli abakhubazekile abasebenzisa ilungelo lomphakathi elivikelwe yiSichibiyelo se - 14.

Inkululeko Engokwenkolo Nokholo Oluncane

ISichibiyelo sokuzivivinya sokuqala esikhululekile sitolikwa ukuvikela izinkolo ezimbalwa, kusukela koFakazi BakaJehova kuya kumaSulumane. Icala elinjenge SSheber v. Verner [1963] ne[FLT] Employment Division v. Smith [1990] wasungula uvivinyo lwesikhathi uhulumeni engase uthwese imithetho engokwenkolo umthwalo. Izimpikiswano zamuva ngokumelene nenkululeko engokwenkolo yokulwa no-6dictivation mithetho eqokomisa ukuphikisana phakathi kwenkululeko engokwenkolo kanye namalungelo e-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye.

Izinselele Nemizabalazo Eqhubekayo

Naphezu kwentuthuko enkulu, abantu abambalwa abaningi basabhekene nemingcele yokulingana okuphelele komthetho - sisekelo.

Ukucindezelwa Kwezinto Ezishisayo Nokuvinjelwa Kwamabhangqa

Imithetho ye-Voter ID, ukususwa kwemiqulu yamavota, nokuvalwa kwezindawo zokuvota kuthinta imiphakathi emincane ngokungenakuqhathaniswa. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme iShelby County [ sisusa imfuneko yangaphambili yokucalulwa kwezindawo enomlando oholela ekubekeleni imithetho yokuvota evimbelayo. I-gerrymanider, lapho imigqa yesifunda idonswa khona ukuqeda amandla amavota ambalwa, iyaqhubeka ibekwa phansi kwe-Act ye-Voting Rights ne-Reformation ye-14.

Isenzo Esiqinisekisayo Nokutholakala Kwemfundo

Izikhulu zezomthetho ziklanyelwe ukuxazulula ukucwasana okungokomlando emfundweni ephakeme ibhekene nezinselele eziqhubekayo ezingokomthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela ukusetshenziswa kohlanga njengesici esisodwa ekuvumeni kodwa futhi yabeka ukucubungula okuqinile. [FLT][1] Iziqu ze-Fair Adgictss v. Harvard[FLT][FLT] [2023] [20]], iNkathi shlkthi igqibe ngokunganakile, inqume ukuthi izinhlelo ziphula umthetho olinganayo wesivikelo. Lesinqumo siyoba nemiphumela efinyelelayo ekungeneni kweqembu elincane eziphezulu.

Ukuthunyelwa Kwamandla Nokuhlelwa Okufuduka

Ukuvalelwa ejele ngokuhlukanisa, izinqubo zokwahlukana komkhaya, nokususwa kwezenzo ezicatshangelweyo ngokuvamile kudlula inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi abantu abangagconwanga, ngisho nalabo abakhona manje ngokungemthetho, balondoloza amalungelo athile ngaphansi kweZichibiyelo zesihlanu nele 14. Ukugwetshwa kwenqubo “Emandleni aseMexico” nokubekwa icala komphakathi kuyaqhubeka kuchaza imingcele yamalungelo abafuduki.

Ukulandisa Kwamaphoyisa Nobulungisa Bobugebengu

Izenzakalo eziphezulu zobudlova bamaphoyisa emiphakathini yabaNsundu nabakwaBrown ziye zabangela ukuba kubelwe izibalo zesizwe. Inqubo efanelekile yeSichibiyelo se 14 senqubo, njengoba ichazwe ku-Graham v.Connor [1998], ibusa iziphakamiso zokulwa ngamandla adlulele. Kodwa ukuzivikela ngokuvamile kuvikela izikhulu ezifanelekayo ekubekeni indiva. Imizamo yokuguqula inqubo efanelekile yokusebenzisa izinga elingu-622of [“ithod], ukwanda kokusetshenziswa kwekhamera, kanye nokucabanga ngendima yamaphoyisa emphakathini.

Isiphetho

Umbono ongokomlando ngamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo kanye namadlanzana embula uhambo oluphawuleka ngokulwa, ukuqina, nentuthuko. Kusukela eMthethweni kaHammurabi ukuya ku-Civil Rights Act nangaphezulu, isizukulwane ngasinye siye sandisa isizinda salabo abanelungelo lokuvikeleka. Nokho inkathi yomlando ayivumelani nobulungisa ngokuzenzekelayo; idinga imizamo eqhubekayo yabashisekeli bemithetho, abahluleli, nabahlali abavamile. Ukuqonda lomlando kubaluleke kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni umphakathi ohlanganisa abantu abanamasu futhi usekele amalungelo abo bonke abantu. Umsebenzi ongapheliziwe wokwenza izithembiso zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wazo zonke idlanzalo oluqinile kuhlala kunezinse izinselele ezichazayo zesikhathi sethu.