Imibono Yakuqala Ngobulungisa Bokufa Nobugebengu

Impikiswano ngesijeziso sokufa nesimiso somthetho owengeziwe sobugebengu ivame ukugxila ekuchazeni umthetho-sisekelo. Phakathi kwezimiso ezinethonya kakhulu kungokobukhomba , ifilosofi ephikelelayo ekufundeni uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala yomphakathi ngesikhathi sokuhlukanisa. Kulabo abaqalayo, ukwethembeka embhalweni oqondwa yisizukulwane esivumelana nomthetho-sisekelo, kunikeza ukuzinza, ukubikezela, nomthetho wentando yeningi. Lombono uhlela indlela abahluleli, izazi, nabakhiqinisi bemithetho ababheka ngayo isijeziso sokufa, amalungelo okusekelwe ekuhlelekeni komphakathi, nokushintsha isimiso somthetho. Ukuqonda kwakuqala kudinga ukubheka ngokuseduze embhalweni wezomlando, ukuhlaziya imibhalo, nokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwemfundiso yemfundiso yezelulekwa — kuyilapho konke ukumelana nezimo zesimiso somthetho wezentengo evumelana nencazelo engokobusweni yezimiso zomthetho womthetho womthetho.

Kuyini Ukukholelwa KuNkulunkulu?

Uqobo alusona isikole sobukhonkolo obufanayo; luhlanganisa izintambo eziningana. Inguquko yokuqala, inhloso yokuqala, ifuna ukuqonda ukuthi iziphi iziferame ezazikholelwa ngokomthetho-sisekelo. Namuhla, ukuhluka okuvelele yincazelo yomphakathi [[[[FLT:] yakudala], ethandwayo nguMahluleli Anton Scaliany nabanye. Lendlela ibuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo ngesikhathi sokumiswa kwe-ratting wayeyo wayeyoqonda ukuthi ubhaleni. Izindlela zokwahlukanisa ihlanganisa futhi nezindlela zomphakathi zokuqala [[[[FLT][FLT:], ezihlola indlela yomthetho nolimi oluchazwa ngayo enkathini yokusungulwa. Konke lokhu kubuza ukuthi umuntu ukuzinikela kwakhe kumele kuhlangane nokungahlanganiswe: ukugculisa amajajisi omthetho noma ukugweba kwabo."

Imvelaphi yobufundisi iqala ekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka njengendlela yokusabela ekufuneni amalungelo amakhulu eWarren naseBurger Courts. Izazi ezinjenge-Robert Bork, Raoul Berger, futhi kamuva uRandy Barnett noGary Lawson bachaza ngokuchanekileyo izici ezingezona ezakuqala. Nakuba ubuBuddha bokuqala buye bathonya iNkantolo Ephakeme ( i-Diverset of Columbia v. ], 2008) ne-Clausse ([FLT] United States v[FLT], 1995, ukusetshenziswa kwayo ekugwebeni isigwebo secala. — Impicala yecala elingapheli. — Impelesi.

Ukuqamba Kwakuqala Nesichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili

ISichibiyelo se-Eighth sithi: “Ibheyili yempi yentambo ngeke idingeke, noma izinhlawulo ezeqile, noma izijeziso ezinonya nezingavamile ezibekwe.” Abaqondisi bamangalela ukuthi incazelo ye- “umbuso nengajwayelekile” yayibekwe ngesikhathi sokubekwa (1791 eSivumelwaneni samalungelo esizwe). Isigwebo esingokomlando ukuthi isijeziso sentambo sentambo sasiyi esisetshenziswa futhi samukelwa kakhulu futhi samukelwa enkathini yokusungulwa. Izenzo zakhishwa kwamacala akuzange kuthathwe ngenxa yokubulala, ukuvukela, ukubulala, ukubulala, ngisho nokubulala, futhi — kwezinye izindawo — ukweba noma ukukhohlisa. IFramenter., futhi ukudweba, ukushisa, ukushisa kwe-omkhandlu yaqala ukuthatha incazelo engokomthetho. Ngakho, i-"awube i-"" ayezothathwa, noma “ngenziwa."

Umlando

Izingcezu eziningana zobufakazi zisekela lokhu kufundwa kobuqaba. Okokuqala, i-Four Congress, eyahlongoza iBill of Rights, futhi yagunyaza isijeziso sentambo yesigwebo esithile sikahulumeni e-Crimes Act ka-1790. Okwesibili, imithetho-mthetho yesizwe nezimiso zenkathi ngokuvumelanayo ivumela ukubulawa kwezigebengu ezingathi sína. Okwesithathu, inkulumo ethi “i-cruelle nengajwayelekile” yabolekiwe kuyi-Lill of Rights of 1689, lapho yanqabela khona isijeziso esingagunyaziswanga umthetho noma isigwebo — hhayi ukunqanyulwa kokubulala. Ngakho abakholelwa ekudalweni kwemithetho yeSigqi se-8 yaphetha ngokuthi i-Refectionedism yayihloselwe ukuba inqubo yobuqaba (njengemoto noma ukudweba ne-arternary) nesijeziso, futhi ingaphuli, isijeziso sokufa isigwebo ngasinye.

“ Izindinganiso Ezishintshayo Zokukhohliswa” Imfundiso

Abasunguli bama ekumelaneni okungagwegwesi basebenzisa izindinganiso ezibonisa isimilo ukuhlola iNkantolo Ephakeme eyamukelwa Trop v. Dulles [1958] futhi yasebenzisa ezimweni zesigwebo sentambo njengecala lokwahlulela [[FLT:]. Georgia[[[FLT] v][FLT]][6][197] [7]]. Ngokwendlela yalokhu kuhlola, i-Andexhendmentment inguquko yendlela echazayokuziphatha yomphakathi ikhula. IJastialiadua edumile njengendlela engekhoyo ekhombayo. Uma ingekho imvume engekho imvumeni engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho (FLTB: 2,2]) [F2][2002] [5] futhi (5]) [iv0] i-Exmotedks.))) (irights.[2] imvume eqotho, ukuthi imvume engekho i

Imibono Yabadaluli Ngecala Lokufa

Kuqashelwa ubufakazi obungokomlando, izazi eziningi zobuqaba nezahluleli zivuma ukufaneleka komthetho-sisekelo kwesijeziso sentambo. Nokho, abavumelani nomthetho-sisekelo ukuba sisetshenziswe kuzo zonke izimo. Abaqondisi bakuqala bahlukanisa phakathi kwenqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esilinganayo. Iphuzu eliyinhloko lilula: ngoba umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni akukunqabi ukubulawa ngenxa yobugebengu obungathi sína, amagatsha ezombangazwe — iziKhongolo-kamente — igunya lokuyigunyaza, ukuvumelana kuphela nokulinganiselwa okucacile kwenqubo elungile nesivikelo.

Iminikelo KaMahluleli UScalia

Imibono kaMahluleli uScalia inikeza ukuvunyela okucacile kokucabanga kwasekuqaleni ngesijeziso sokufa. Kansas v. Marsh (2006], wabhala ukuthi iSiphakamiso seMiphetho ye-Eighth “asinqabeli isigwebo sokufa kwababulali” futhi wagxeka iNkanto yeNkantolo yokuyiphatha njengendaba edingayo ewukuziphatha okuhle kwabahluleli." [[FLT]]]] ku-'u-Rring v. Arizona[FLT:] [2002], uScalia wavuma ukuthi iSishaya - sisekelo sidinga umHluleki wezehlulelo owe-6 ukuba athole izici ezibangela ukuba ummangalelwa athole isivikelo sokufa — ekwandiswa yize inzuzo yeze yeze inzuzo yendlu yokuqala yendlu yakuqala.

Ubulungisa UThomas Nokuziphendukela Kwenkolelo Yokuqala

UMahluleli uClarence Thomas unikeze incazelo eqinile kakhulu yezobuntwana. Graham v. Florida [2010], waphikisana ngokuthi ukuphila kwentsha ngaphandle kokukhishwa kwecala kungumthetho. UThomas waveza ukuthi isijeziso “isijeziso esingavamile” yilezo ezazibhekwa kakhulu ngo1791. Njengoba izingane zazibulawa (nasekuboshweni) ngaleso sikhathi, amandla kahulumeni okubeka ukuphila ngaphandle kwe-partolensiti. Ngokufanayo, [FLT:] Bruckle. [[FFFF:]

Ukusekelwa Kwesigwebo Sokufa Kuvela KuLens Wakuqala

  • [ Ukuqhubekeka okungokonyaka: ukukhipha isigwebo bekulokhu kuyisici esiqhubekayo senqubo yaseMelika kusukela phambi koMthetho-sisekelo. Abalawuli be-Ratifi babengeke babheke ukupheliswa njengemfuneko yomthetho-mthetho.
  • UbuFaredali: ISichibiyelo sesishiyagalombili sisebenza ezizweni ngeSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, kodwa abasunguli bezincwadi zakuqala bavame ukuphikisa ngokuthi imfundiso yokuhlanganisa kufanele ilinganiselwe. Izazi eziningi zakuqala zikholelwa ukuthi i-Foderalis i-reversal ukuze ichaze ubugebengu nesijeziso ngaphandle kokuba ilungelo elithile lincishiswe ngokucacile.
  • I-alticism:[ [inkulumo ethi “i-cultural nengavamile” ayiqukethe amagama afana no-“evern” noma“i-"i-producs" yenqaba ukusungulwa komthetho-sisekelo omusha.
  • Ukulandisa ngedemocratic:[ Uma abantu befuna ukuqeda isijeziso sentambo, bangathatha izimemezelo zabamisi-mthetho babo. Izinkantolo akumelwe zifushanise leyo nqubo yezombangazwe.

Ukuphikiswa Kweminye Imiqondo

Imibono yendabuko ibhekene nezinselele ezinkulu ezivela kubafundi nabahluleli abangaveli kumaprotoryst. “owesigungu somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo” uphikisa ngokuthi abadansi balindele ukuba uMthetho-sisekelo uchazwe ngokukhanyiselwa izimo ezishintshayo. Abanye bakhomba ekubhekiseleni kweSichibiyelo se-Heighth esibonisa ukuthi“ ngokungenaphutha”: isijeziso singaba esingavamile njengoba umphakathi usilahla. Abanye baqokomisa ingozi yokubulala abantu abangenacala — ukukhathazeka okwakunganciphili kakhulu ekhulwini le-18 kodwa manje kusekelwa ukuhlolelwa kwe-DNA ekwamunisweni okungokomthetho kanye nokucwaninga okungaqondile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abagxeki cishe baphikisa ukuthi ukuthembela kokuqala kwezenzo zomlando kungaqhubekisela phambili ukungabi nabulungisa obufana nokucwa ngokwesigeqe. [FOctive] [Flact:] ukukhathalela okungathandeki kwemibono yobandlululo phakathi kwe-umbangokwabantu abaningi, futhi okungamukelekile kalula kulokhu kuvela ezinhlaneke kakhulu kwezenhlo, iziphethombo zezezezezezenstru, iziseke zezeze zeze ze

Imibono Yabantu Bakuqala Ngobulungisa Bobugebengu Ngaphandle Kokujeziswa

Ukubheka kwayo inqubo yobugebengu, amalungelo ommangalelwa, nohulumeni kuye kwaveza umbono ohlukile wobulungisa — lowo otusa ukuqonda okungokomlando okungokomlando kwenqubo efanele, ukuqulwa kwecala, nemibuso yamaphoyisa kahulumeni.

Inqubo Efanele Nezincwadi Zamalungelo Abantu

Abaqondisi bemfundiso yokuqala bagcizelela ukuthi i-Gast Procession Claus yeSiphendulo sesihlanu nesamashumi amane ama-14 kufanele ichazwe ngeso ngencazelo yaso yokuqala. Lokhu ngokuvamile kuholela enqubeni elinganiselwe yenqubo efanelekile — umqondo wokuthi u-Clause uvikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo angahlukaniswanga eMthethweni. Abamangalelwa, lokhu kusho ukuthi amalungelo abekwe (ukuqulwa, ukuxabana, njl.) ayisivikelo esiyinhloko. Abaqali bamahluleli abathola amalungelo afana “nomthetho omthetho" (akukho embhalweni) noma awenziwayo (angekho embhalweni). Izimiso ezingokomthetho zakuqala azizange ziphikiselwe ukumelana nezinqumo. [FLY:].[5][4] [FT] [12] futhi kamuva] izigijikijelanisa ukuthi izixwayiso ezingokomthetho zomthetho, i-Mirne, i-Mirne, i-ogconstomssssss asho ukuthi izimfuneko ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho zilungile azivumelani

Isichibiyelo Sesine: Ukufuna Injongo Yasekuqaleni

Endabeni yokuhlola nokuquleka, ukusungula kuye kwabhebhethekisa izimpikiswano ngencazelo “yokungacabangeli.” Umbono woMahluleli Scalia abaningi Kyllo v. United States (2001]] wakholelwa ukuthi ukusebenzisa isithombe esishisayo esivela ekhaya kwakuwukufuna ngoba kungene emkhathini abantu ababewubheka njengowasese. ku-United States v. Jones[FLT:][3]], Scalia wabhala iNkantolo yeNkanto exhuma umkhondo we-GPS ukuya emotweni kwakuyisitelelo esimweni esingokoqobo — “ukuphenya ngaphansi kwesivikelo sempahla yokuqala. ” Ngakho, ngokuvamile “enqaba i-octivessionstion ofs of FLT [F] ku-FLT] [5], uS.[5] Umthetho wanamuhla womhlaba womhlaba wonke, ungasekela izivumelwano zezimiso zanamuhla.[19]

Amalungelo Ombhishobhi Nosuku Lokuphikisa UClaus

Abaqondisi benkolo baye basebenzisa indlela engokomlando ekuvuseleleni i-Bhactiation Claus. Umbono kaMahluleli Scalia . [2004]) wathatha indawo yovivinyo olungaphambili oluqondiswe ngendlela engokomlando: izinkulumo ezifakazelayo zofakazi abangekhoyo azinakwenzeka ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa wayenethuba lokunqamule ngokuhlola. Lesi sinqumo sashintsha kakhulu ukuzama ubugebengu futhi sathethelelwa ekusunguleni kokuqonda impikiswano. Ngokufanayo, ilungelo lokuqulwa kwesinqumo ngaphansi kweSithathu Somthetho u-Exption liye laqiniswa nokuqiniswa kwesizathu sokuqala. [[FLT:] Kunoma iSiphakamiso seNkathi seNkathi seNkathi. [FLT:] [FLD] Appdi. v[FF] [12] [5]

Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule: Ukwehlukana Okukhulu Nokungezwani Kwezinhlanga

Umthetho woqobo awusho lutho ngezindaba ezicindezela kakhulu kubulungisa banamuhla. Ukuboshwa kwemilambo — i-United States inezinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuboshwa ezweni elithuthukile — iphakamisa imibuzo ngokuphathelene nokulingana nobukhulu bomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho. Izazi ze-Credist njengoRandy Barnett zisekela “imibuso ephinde yavuselelwa”, ziphikisa ukuthi imithetho eminingi yemilaliso yezidakamizwa nezibhamu idlula igunya lomthetho-mfantubeko we-Congress Commercilla Clacesce, ngokwesibonelo, i-Congress ingalawula kuphela intellicances interlinection yezentelligist — hhayi nje kuphela imisebenzi egcwele njengempahla yezidakamizwa. Lokhu kunganciphisa kakhulu inani leziboshwa zikahulumeni. Nokho, izifunda zezwe zisengalondoloza amandla amakhulu okuphatha ukuziphatha kobugebengu, okungathinta izinombolo zezibalo zeze.

Ukubheka Izinhlanga Nabantu Beqalile

Ukwahlukana kobuhlanga ekuboshweni, ekugwetshweni, nasekubulaweni kuvame ukuqokonyiswa abagxeki besimiso sobulungisa sobugebengu. Abakholelwa ebuqamama bavuma ukuthi iSichibiyelo se 144 se-Ulwelo luka-Exchange [Plamende ka-Claus] ekuqaleni saqondwa njengokwenqabela ukuhlukaniswa okucacile kohlanga, kodwa bahlukene ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yesivikelo sika-Claus ihlanganisa “igalelo”. [UMahluleli Thomas, [[FLL:0] ku-Graitep] v. Bollinger [ [[FLT]] [[1] i-" [indlela elulayokuhluphayo] kodwa futhi inqaba ukuhlukanisa ukucwa kwezingahlulwa kwezimiso. Nokho, ezinye izimo ezibonisa ukwahlulela ngokwezimiso zobulungisa ezingokomthetho wohlanga oluqinile, futhi eziwuphikisa kakhulu umthetho wobuhlanga owenqabayo, futhi owenqaba kakhulu ukuthi ubandlululo.

Isabelo

Umbono wokuqala ngokulinganisa uyinkimbinkimbi. ISichibiyelo se-Heighth siyakwenqabela “amafafa e-flectric” kanye“ nezijeziso ezingavamile,” kodwa abaqali baphikisana ngokuthi kudinga ukulingana okuqinile phakathi kobugebengu nesijeziso emacaleni angakholeki. Izinqumo zamuva zeNkantolo ePhakamileyo [FLT]]Graham v. Florida kanye [[FLT]] ne-Miller v. [FLT][FLT] [ig] [20] [20] — okungakho okulinganiselwe ukuphila kwentsha ngaphandle kwe-parlegion — kwanquy. Inqumo enzima kakhulu, ngaphandle kokufunda inseleleka kakhulu. Ngokuphambene, inseleleka kakhulu, i-Alciencerde, impikiswano yeNkakhulu lokuqala.[12]

Ukuqamba Kwakuqala Kuyasebenza: Izenzakalo Eziyinhloko

  • Furman v. Georgia INkantolo Ephakeme yamemezela isijeziso sokufa njengoba ngalesosikhathi yayinikeza imvume engavumelani nomthetho (564). IJaji William Brennan noThir Pall Marshall bayiphikisa ngokwephula izindinganiso eziguquguqukayo; UMahluleli Scalia kamuva wayegxeka umphumela njengongathathi ngqanga phambili. Abasunguli bemfundiso bakuqala ngokuvamile babheka i-Fram njengempikisi.
  • [FLT] Greg v. Georgia [6] INkantolo yasekela imithetho eqondiswe יdiscretion, iphinde ibeke isijeziso sentambo. Umbono wobulungisa uStewart wagcizelela ukuthi isigwebo sokufa sasingekhona ngokwe-se-se-socitunial — umphumela wabasekela, nakuba bengase bafune ukuvumelana nemibono njengendlela yokuhlehla kokuhlola kokuqala.
  • Ring v. Arizona (2002]: INkantolo yacela amajaji ukuba athole izici eziphindisayo. IJaji Scalia yavumelana, yenza impikiswano yokuqala esekelwe kwiSichibiyelo seSithandathu. Lendaba ibonisa ukuthi i-ism ingawavikela kanjani amalungelo ommangalelwa.
  • bucklew v. Precythe (2029): INkantolo yenqaba indlela yokubeka inselele. UMahluleli Gormoth Gormoth wasebenzisa umbono wakhe ngesidingo ukubonisa indlela engenzekayo kanye nokusetshenziswa komlando kwezindlela ezithile zokubulala.

Isiphetho: Ithonya Elihlala Njalo LobuQala

Ubufandamentali buyaqhubeka bulawula impikiswano ngobulungisa bobugebengu e-United States. Ukuphikelela kwayo emyalezweni, umlando, nesimiso sobudemori kunikeza isilinganiso esinamandla somqondo ‘ woMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo.” Ngesijeziso sokufa, abaqondisi bokuqala bathola ukuthi awukho umngcele womthetho sisekelo, kodwa futhi bavikela izivikelo ezibonisa ukuma kwenjongo kwasekuqaleni yokuqulwa kwecala nenqubo efanelekile. Impikiswano ebanzi yomthetho womthetho womthetho, inikeza amathuluzi okulinganisela amandla kahulumeni kanye nokuvuselela isivikelo sokwakha — njengoba nje kulwela ukusingatha inqubo yobuhlanga nemithetho ehlukahlukene ngaphandle kokukhanga. Umbangosi phakathi kokuqashelwa kokuqala kwemithetho eshicindezelwe kanye nemfuneko yobulungisa emhlabeni oshintshwe nakancane. Nokho umbono wokuqala uhlala ubalulekile engxoxukwini lwezingxoxo eziqhubekayo ngomthetho womthetho womthetho - sisekelo, futhi ushiye abantu.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka isichibiyelo sesishiyagalombili eNational Constitution Center; umbono woMahluleli Scalia ku- Kansas v. Marsh[; nokuhlaziywa komlando ku- John Stinneford, “Incazelo Yokuqala ye-‘Utualda ’" .