Imingcele Yokuphazanyiswa Okukabili Kwezehlakalo Zobuphekula Nokulondeka Kwesizwe

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili siyisisekelo senqubo yobugebengu ezimisweni eziningi zomthetho, esiklanyelwe ukuvikela abantu enkathazweni yokuzanywa kabili ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Sihlanganisa izindinganiso zokugcina, ukulunga, nesivikelo kuhulumeni abaphaphamele. Nokho, uma iziphakamiso zihilela ubuphekula noma izindaba zokhuseleko lwesizwe, lesimiso somthetho wesikhala esiqinile simelana ngokungemthetho nokungalingani. Izigebengu zenkolo ezivumela ukuqulwa kwemithetho ehlukene, ukumiswa kwemithetho eqinile, ngisho nokuhlolwa kwemifa yempi yezizwe. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuhlelwa okungokomthetho kokusongela okuphindiwe kabili, izinselele ezibangelwa ubuphekula, ukuvikelwa kwezentengiselwano okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamalungelo abantu kanye nokuphepha okuqhubekayo.

Isisekelo Esingokomthetho Sengozi Ekabili

Umsuka Nendlela Yokuhamba

Ukwenqatshelwa kokuhlelwa kwezingozi eziphindwe kabili kusuka emthethweni wamaRoma nasemthetho wakuqala ovamile, kuthola ukubonakaliswa kwesaga somthetho sesiNgisi . Ne-debet bis vatali — akekho okufanele aphatheke kabi kabili ngenxa yesizathu esifanayo. E-United States, ifakwe eSiphendulweni sesihlanu: "kungabikho muntu obekwa engozini efanayo yokuphila noma isitho secala." Inkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa lesi sivikelo ukuba ikhiphe icala ngeSiphendulo se-1465 [FLT:]. [FLT:] Mary v[FLD] [FL:3] [1]

Ukulunga okuyinhloko komthetho kumiswe kahle: kuvimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni ukushushisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuze ahlukumeze umuntu, kugwema ukungabi nabulungisa kokufuna umuntu avikelelwe ekumangalelweni okufanayo izikhathi eziningi, futhi kulondoloze ukuphela kwezahlulelo. Njengoba uMahluleli Black abhala ku- Lugree v. United States [1957], izingozi eziphindwe kabili zivikela "umuntu ukuba angaziswa ezingozini zokuqulwa kanye kanye nokuqiniseka okungenzeka ngenxa yecala elibikiwe.""

Lapho Ingozi Igcotshwa

I-jeoparty ixhumene enkantolo uma ijaji selifakwe futhi lifungwe; ecaleni lebhentshi, lapho ufakazi wokuqala efukwa. Ukuvuma icala, kunamathela lapho inkantolo yamukela isicelo. Uma inecala likhona, ukuquliswa kwecala elifanayo kuvaliwe ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe icala elihlukile — njengecala elingafanele lokufuna ukukhokhwa noma ukunxusa okuphumelelayo kommangalelwa okuholela ekuqulweni okusha.

Amagebe Asemzimbeni: Indlela Ama - belt Ambaxa - mbili Ngayo Ama - doctrinal

Imfundiso Yababusi Abahlukene

Mhlawumbe ukulinganiselwa okukhulu kakhulu kobuphekula nasemacaleni ezokuphepha esizwe imfundiso ehlukene phakathi yezikhulu [. Ngaphansi kwalomthetho, isigqebhezana sengozi ephindwe kabili asikuvimbeli ukuqulwa ngokulandelana kwezikhulu ezihlukene zokuziphatha okufanayo. Isenzo esisodwa esiphula umthetho kahulumeni nombuso, noma imithetho yamazwe amabili ahlukene, ingabekwa ngokwehlukana ngaphandle kokulahla iSiphendulo Sesihlanu. Inkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa lemfundiso ngokuphinde yangena phambili. United States[FLT:] v. (20) [20]]), siphethe ukuthi uhulumeni wombuso uhulumeni uhlukene ngenxa yezinjongo eziphindiwe kabili.

Ngokomongo womhlaba wonke, lokhu kusho ukuthi umuntu angazanywa kwelinye izwe ngenxa yamacala ahlobene nobuphekula bese ebekwa icala noma aquliswe kwelinye izwe ngenxa yezenzo ezifanayo eziyisisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu osolwayo oboshelwe ukuhlela ukuhlasela angabhekana namacala kokubili ezweni laseYurophu nase-United States, futhi engeke anikeze sivikelo esiphindwe kabili. Imfundiso cishe iqeda izingozi ezimbili lapho amazwe ahlukene emisa ukubambisana okukhona phakathi komthetho wamaphekula.

Ukumangalelwa Okuhlukile, Ukuziphatha Okufanayo

Okunye ukuhlukana okuyisihluthulelo kuvela ku- ubugebengu obufanayo. Ukuhlolwa kwesikhala se-stimburger [ ukuhlolwa okungahluziwe, okuthathwe ku-[[FLT:] sickburger v. U United States [1932], kubuza ukuthi icala ngalinye lidinga ubufakazi bengxenye obungekho enye into. Uma le mithetho emibili ihlukene, ithathwa njengecala elihlukene ngisho noma ivela ekuziphatheni okufanayo. Lokhu kuvumela abashushicileli ukuba bamangalele ummangalelwa ngezenzo eziningi eziyenezenzileyo — isibonelo, uzungu lokuhlasela, ukusekela izinto ezibonakalayo enhlanganweni, nokusetshenziswa kwezikhali zokubhujiswa ezilandelanayo — futhi uma iziphumo ezilandelanayo ezinqunywe ngokufanayo noma ezinqunywe ngokunye ukukhohlakalwa, uma kunganikezwangaphathwanga.

Ezimweni zobuphekula, uhulumeni uvame ukumisa icebo "lokukhomba ngokuphandle": ukuletha izikhalo zozungu kwenye i-astere, ukuhlasela kwe-asmential, noma ukusebenzisa ukuphulwa kwemithetho yokufuduka njengendawo yokuwisela. Inkantolo ye-U.S. yokudlulisa izikhalo ze-Fourcess yeSibili, ku-United States v. Feliciano [1993], ikholelwa ukuthi ukuvalwa kwemigebengu yezidakamizwa akuyivalelanga ukushushukiswa kamuva ubugebengu obuyimpamba ukushushumbiswa kwezidakamizwa eziphuma ezinsukwini ezifanayo, ngenxa yokuthi izakhi ezihlukene.

Ukuthunywa Kwempi Nezinkantolo Zasembubhisweni

Ukuba khona kwezimiso ezingokomthetho ezihambelanayo — izinkantolo zobugebengu ezivamile namanxusa ezempi — kudala elinye igebe. Inkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. ku- United States expar rel. Toth v. Quarles (155]) yasikisela ukuthi ukuqunjelwa okuphindwe kabili kungase kungavimbele ukuqulwa kwecala kwempi ngemva kwecala elifanayo uma inkantolo yesizwe ifeza izithakazelo ezisemkhakhelisweni ezizimele. Nakuba kamuva imacala amabili ephethe imfundiso [[FLT], ] umshayeli wafaka isiboniso somthetho uye wacelwa ukuthethelela ukusolwa kobuphekula ibutho lezempi, nakuba ingazange isongezwa impoqo yomthetho. [FFUM] [F] [4] umbangoso womthetho ophakeme]

Ukufihla Imfihlo Yesizwe Nezindlela Zokungahlisi Abantu

Imingcele ephindwe kabili yengozi incishiswa ngokusetshenziswa kwejele lokuvala iziboshwa . , [FLT]] intwana yezentengiselwano [, futhi [[FLT:]] isigwebo sokulawula [[FLT]] [[FLT:]] esingalandela noma esandulela ukuvinjelwa kobugebengu. Umuntu angabekwa isigwebo sobuphekula angabekwa njengesitha esilwayo, esivinjelwe ukuhamba, noma sibe nempahla eshiywe eziqinisweni zokhuseleko zesizwe. Lezi zinyathelo azithathwa "Isijeziso" ngezinjongo eziphindiwe kabili, ngisho noma zibeka imingcele enzima ehlwini yenkululeko nempahla. [FLT:] Inkantolo ephakeme eUnited States.[5] U-UrG.[5] I-Ur.[5] Isigwebo sezenzo zomthetho womthetho womthetho asenza isigwebo somthetho siphindelwene.

Imibono Eqhathaniswayo: Indlela Ezinye Izimiso Ezingokomthetho Ezihlanganisa Ngayo Ingozi Kabili

I - United Kingdom Nomhlangano WaseYurophu

Ukusondela kwe-United Kingdom ekuhlelweni kwamaphutha amabili kwathathelwa inguquko enkulu ngemva konyaka ka-1990. ISigebengu somthetho wama-Criminal Act sasungula ukuvunyelwa kwamacala amakhulu — kuhlanganise nobuphekula — lapho kuvela khona "ubufakazi obusha nobuqaqezayo". Lokhu kwasichitha ngokuphumelelayo isimiso sokugcina sobugebengu obugciniwe bamathuna. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iNkantolo yaseYurophu yamaLungu yamaLungelo, enqabela ukulahlekelwa kabili (]] USwey Zolotukhin v. [[FLT]][2009]] [2009]]], yasebenzisa i-"unyakaza'unyaka wonke iSiphakamiso sesime esingu sesine semithetho engokomthetho.[FFF] u-A.[2] u-A.[3] iSivume izingozi seNhloko yaseYurophu eHlulekiswe ngokunye ukubulala izikhali ezingaphezulu ngenxa yenzondo engoko yohlanga. kodwa ingekhona. U.[3] Imposo yomthetho enzinye i-uni yavuvuvuvu ya

I-European Union [[QUE:0] Nes ku-Idem Isimiso

Phakathi kwe-European Union, iSiphakamiso 54 se-Schengen Convention ne-EU Charter of Fundament Rights simisa isimiso esinamandla se-bites ukuthi lesi simiso sibopha ukuqulwa komthetho kwesibili kunoma yisiphi isifundazwe samalungu lapho isahlulelo sokugcina sesinikezelwe kwesinye isigaba selungu sezenzo ezifanayo. Inkantolo ye-Justice of the European Union, Koskowski[ [206] [206], ikholelwa ukuthi lesi simiso sisebenza ngisho nalapho ukumangalelwa kokuqala kuphelile ngaphandle kwecala eliphelele. Nokho, izenzakalo zobuphekulahla zihilela ukuhlasela okungahlanga nokwenza ubugebengu, njengoba kuboniswe iSiphaka samazwe (2] esingu-Treanski (isivumelwano esise-Europe Union, esivumela amalungu ezindaweni zakhona ukuba avikele i-"lenza inzuzo."lenza intente."

ICanada NeNkantolo Yesigebengu Yomhlaba Wonke

I-Charter of Rights and Freedoms yaseCanada, (1990) ngaphansi kwengxenye 11(h), iqinisekisa isivikelo esiphindwe kabili sengozi, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi amacala ahlukene e-countainss ahlukene. R. Van Rassel[FL:1] [1990], iNkantolo yathi i-R. i-R. i-R. i-Romsbet ibambelele ekutheni ukumangalelwa e-United States akuvimbelanga ukuqulwa okulandelayo eCanada ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo, isebenzisa "icala" kunokuvivinya u "ukuziphatha". Lokhu kuvumelana nemfundiso ehlukile. Isitejikelezo bezizwe, umthetho weNkakhulu lezizwe (IC) uhlanganisa i-na elungiselelweni eliyi-imposogobo engokomthetho engokomthetho engu-20, kodwa ivumela ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho yesizwe ukuba ingabi yize izigeqeqeqe, njengoba ingekho, ngenxa yecala, uma inkantolo yesizwe, noma ingekho, uma ingekho, ngenxa yecala, noma imvume

Ukuhlola Icala Ngokubili Embonweni Oyingozi Nempi Yamaphekula

Ukuqulwa Kwecala LaseZacarias Moussaoui

Zacarias Moussaoui, "umthumbi we-20th," wamangalelwa e-United States ngenxa yozungu oluhlobene nokuhlasela kwangoSeptember 11. Ukuqulwa kwecala lakhe kwaphakamisa ukukhathazeka okuphindwe kabili kwezingozi lapho uhulumeni efuna ukuletha ubufakazi obungasetshenziswa ngaphambili ekumangaleleni abanye abakhile uzungu. Ekugcineni, uMussaoui wanxusa ukuba abekwe icala futhi wagwetshwa ukuphila ejele. Nokho, ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwaleli cala kwaqokomisa indlela amacala ahlukene ngayo — uzungu, ubuphekula, nokubhujiswa kwezindiza — kungangeniswa ngezindawo ezihlukene ngaphandle kokubangela ingozi ephindwe kabili, ngoba icala ngalinye lidinga izimpawu ezihlukene.

Isikhombi Ukuqhumisa: Pan Am Flight 103

Ukuqhunyiswa kwebhomu iLockerbie kubonisa imingcele ephindwe kabili yobuphekula emhlabeni wonke. Abasolwa ababili baseLivan baqulwa ngaphansi komthetho wase-Scotland enkantolo ekhethekile eNetherlands. Omunye wakhululwa; omunye walahlwa icala. Ummangalelwa olahlwe icala, u-Al-Amina Khalifa Fimah, kamuva akabhekananga naso esinye isigwebo, kodwa icala laphakamisa umbuzo: wayengazanywa yini kwelinye izwe, njenge-United States? Ngaphansi kwezezenzo ezingaphezulu zezezeze-U.S., ummangalelwa ongaphandle olahliwe icala akamkhokhisi, ngoba umbusi wangaphandle ubhekwa njengomphathi ozimele. Nokho, uhulumeni wase-U.S. ukhetha ukungaphindi hlangothi oluphindiwe lwengozi oluphindiwe ngokomthetho ongaphezulu.

Guantánamo Bay Detaines

Detaines owase-Guantanámo Bay wabhekana nezimpikiswano eziphindwe kabili. Abanye baqulwa phambi kwemishini yezempi futhi bakhululwa noma balahlwa icala, kodwa bahlala ejele ngokuthi "amabutho alwayo" ngisho nangemva kokuphela kwesigwebo sabo. Al Bahlil v. United States [202015], i-D.C. isifunda sakholelwa ukuthi ukusekela kwempahla yezenhlangothi zobuphekula kwakuyicala lempi elithathwa ngokuphazamisayo yikhomishane yempi, kodwa iNkanto ephakeme yalahla ukubukeza. Impikiswano yokuthi ukukhonzwa kwecala lokungamele ukuqulwa kwesizwe okulandelayo akukapheli. I-Obama inqaba ukuvikelwa ngokuphindiwe futhi ukuvikelwa. [Fotences]

Izimpikiswano Zemithetho: Ukushintsha Noma Ukugcina Izinqumo Ezingamukeleki

Izimpikiswano Eziningi

Abasekeli bokuvumela ukuqulwa kwezigwegwe eziningi ezimweni zobuphekula baphikisa ngokuthi isimo esiyingqayizivele sokusongela kwamaphekula anamuhla — ngokuvamile okuvela emazweni ahlukene, ukuphazanyiswa, nokusetshenziswa kwezindawo ezihlukene — sidinga ukuvumelana ngokomthetho. Isenzo esisodwa singaphula imithetho yamazwe eminingi, sihlanganise kokubili ubugebengu nempi, futhi siveze ubufakazi obusha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Le mfundiso ehlukile, kulombono, ihlonipha ubukhosi besizwe ngasinye futhi ivumela igunya ngalinye ukuba lilwelethe izithakazelo zaso siqu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukulondeka kwesizwe kungafuna ukuba kubekwe isolwa noma kuvinjwe empini ngisho nangemva kokulahlwa kwenkantolo yezakhamuzi, ukuze kuvinjelwe ukukhululwa kwabantu abayingozi abasengasenabo ozungulweni oluqhubekayo.

Izimpikiswano Zokuzivikela

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ngaphandle kwengozi ephindwe kabili emacalani esizwe okuvikela, kushiye abamangalelwa besengozini yokuxhashazwa uhulumeni. Bakhomba engozini "yokuthenga izinto ezifanele" ngabashushisi — ukufuna igunya lobungane ngemva kokungathethelelwa kwenye indawo — kanye nokulahlekelwa okungokwengqondo nokungokwezimali kokulingwa okuningi. I-American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) iye yaphikisa ngokuthi ukuvumela ukuquliswa ngokulandelana kwezenzo ezifanayo kululaza inqubo efanelekile futhi icele ukukhohliswa yisikhulu esiphethe. Isazi esingokomthetho u-Erin Murphy siye saqaphela ukuthi imfundiso ehlukile yezentengiselwano "permits zomthetho womhlaba nesodwa kanye nohulumeni ukuba imangalele ukuziphatha okufanayo, okuyinkinga ikakhulukazi lapho omunye walabo bamangalelwa eqhutshwa noma ukhuseleko lwezwe noma lwezwe."""

Ukubizwa Kwezinguquko Ezingokomthetho

Abanye abashisekeli bezinguquko baye bahlongoza ukulinganisela imfundiso ehlukile yezikhulu ngokukhethekile ezicaleni zobuphekula, ngokwemithetho noma ngokulungisa umthetho-mthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, "Ukuziphatha Okufanayo, Imiphumela Efanayo" isikhombi sesibili singamangalelwa uma eyokuqala ingeyokwenza okufanayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isikhulu. Abanye basekela ukufuna ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho phakathi kwezindawo ukuze kugwenywe ukuthatha inqubo efanayo. Indlela ka-UK yokuvumela izinqubo zokuqubulo kuphela lapho "busha nobufakazi obuqandlisayo" bumelela khona isisekelo esiphakathi — ukulondoloza ukuphela kodwa uqaphele ithuba lokutholakala kamuva kwezokuphepha kwesizwe okungathi sína.

Imizamo Yokuvumelanisa Izizwe Zonke

Ezweni lonke, izivumelwano ezinjenge-United Nations Convention for the Jundellion of Terrist Bombings ifuna ukuba kubekwe izifundazwe ukuze kubekwe noma kucaciswe ezinye izinsongo, kodwa zingadingi ukubhekana nengozi ephindwe kabili. I-International Law Commission iye yahlola "amabhuleki asemaphandleni" ezimiso zobugebengu emhlabeni wonke, kodwa intuthuko iye yephuza. Isibonelo se-Sliginte sinikeza uhlelo olulodwa, kodwa sisebenza kuphela ukusho ukuthi ihlangene ne-ICC. Isivumelwano sembulunga yonke esihlanganisa ubuphekula obukabili izingozi ezingase-ayibhithiki, kodwa kungadinga ukuhlehliselwa kwengozi engokongalahliswa kwemithetho.

Isiphetho

Isimiso sobungozi obuphindwe kabili, nakuba siyisisekelo sobulungisa obungokomthetho, sisebenza ngaphansi kokulinganiselwa okukhulu lapho sibhekene nobuphekula kanye nokukhathalela ukulondeka kwesizwe. Imfundiso ezimele, ukukhomba okuhlukene, kanye nokuba khona kwezimiso zomthetho ezihambelanayo kudala izindlela eziningi ukuze ohulumeni bamangalele umuntu kaningi ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo okuyisisekelo. Lokhu kuveza ukungavumelani okukhulu phakathi kwemiqondo yokugcina umthetho kanye nesidingo sokuphepha komphakathi enkathini yokusongela komthetho.

Njengoba ubuphekula bushintsha, izimiso zomthetho kumelwe ziqhubeke zilinganisa ukulingana phakathi kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye nokulondeka okuhlangene. I-United States, United Kingdom, European Union, kanye nezinye izifundazwe ziye zasebenzisa lendawo ngendlela ehlukile, kodwa ayikho eye yayixazulula ngokugcwele lempi. Iminyaka ezayo cishe iyobona ukuhlaziywa nokuthathwa kwemithetho njengoba izinkantolo zilwa nezimo eziqanjiwe — njengokumangalelwa kwezilwi zakwamanye amazwe esezaqulwa kakade yizinkantolo zendawo ezimpini.

Ekugcineni, imingcele yezingozi eziphindwe kabili ezicaleni zobuphekula ayiyona nje indaba engokomthetho engokwesayensi kodwa isibonakaliso sezindinganiso ezijulile: ukuthi umphakathi ungaphumelela kangakanani lapho ubhekene nezinsongo eziyisisekelo, nokuthi isivikelo esingakanani esingokwesiko ozosidlulisela kulabo abamangalelwa ngobugebengu obungathi sína. Impendulo ihlala ingaxazululeki, futhi lenkulumo - mpikiswano izoqhubeka imisa umthetho omelene nobuphekula amashumi eminyaka azayo.