Ukuqonda Umthetho Kahulumeni

Isimiso somthetho waseMelika sisebenza ngaphansi kohlelo lobukhosi obubili obumiswe nguMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. u-Supremacy Claus ku-Siphakamiso VI simemezela ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, kodwa iSichibiyelo seshumi sigcina wonke amagunya angaphathiswanga uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe. Lokhu kwakha ukucindezeleka okunamandla lapho imibuso ingasebenza khona njenge "izinhlangano zentando yeningi" kuyilapho umthetho kahulumeni ubeka indawo noma uphahla lwendlu kuye ngokwendawo. Isimiso sombuso wezwe esilawula umthetho ophikisanayo nezwe (*) siveza, futhi siveza, futhi imingcele yalemingcele izakhiwo. Ukuqonda lo mthetho ukwenzeka njalo kubaluleke ekuqondeni indlela imithetho yokuzibusa nokuthinta yonke into ezindaweni zomphakathi.

Imiphumela yokungavumelani kwemithetho yomthetho, imisebenzi yezebhizinisi, intela, nenkululeko yomuntu siqu. Kubafundisi nabafundi, ukuhlaziya izenzakalo zangempela zezwe kwembula imiphumela engokoqobo yalomklamo womthetho-sisekelo. Ngezansi, sihlola izindawo eziyisithupha lapho ukungqubuzana − noma ukubambisana kwezwe negunya lombuso kuye kwaguqula isimiso nokuphila kwansuku zonke.

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala 1: Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho Kwecala

Ukubekwa kwe-cannabis ngokomthetho ekusetshenzisweni kwezokwelapha nasekuzijabuliseni kuseyisibonelo esivelele kakhulu sempi kahulumeni. Ngaphansi kwe-Substances Act eLawuliweyo (CSA), insangu ibhekwa njengeshibhi elinomthetho, iphethe izijeziso eziqinile zikahulumeni zokuyilawula, ukusakaza, nokulima. Kodwa kusukela ngo-1996, lapho iCalifornia iqala ukubhajwa insangu esemthethweni, amazwe angu-38 ne-Gadies of Columbia aye amisa imithetho evumela ukwelapha noma ukusebenzisa isikhothambiso esidala. Lokhu kwakha indawo empunga eqinile lapho amabhizinisi kahulumeni asebenza khona ngokuphula umthetho kahulumeni ngokuqondile.

I - metriandraum YaseCole Nokubuyiselwa Kwayo Esontweni

Phakathi nokuphathwa kwe-Obama, uSekela-Attiorney uJames Cole wakhipha i-memorandum (203) efundisa abashushisi bakahulumeni ukuba bangabeki umthetho omisiwe ezifundeni ezazinezimiso eziqinile zokuqondisa. Lokhu kwanika isilinganiso sokuvikela kwezentengiselwano. Nokho, ngo-2018, u-Attorney Jeff Sessions wasusa iCole Mearrandum, wabuyisela ukuqonda okugcwele ku-U.S. Attorney. Naphezu kwalokho ukubhidliza, iSivumelo siye sahlanganisa iRobaker / Halfrer amentrementmentmentations ezikweletaneni ze-appiropries kusukela ngo-2014, enqabela uMnyango wezimali ekuphazamiseni izinhlelo zentshobo. Lokhu kuvumele imboni ukuba ikhule, kodwa usongo lwezentengo yeze yeze yezentengo yeze yeze yezente.

Ngaphezu komthetho, lempi idala imithwalo esebenzayo. Amabhizinisi e-Cannabis awakwazi ukusebenzisa izinkonzo zokubhaka ngenxa yezinkathazo zikahulumeni zemali, eziwaphoqelela ukuba asebenze ngemali. I-SAFE Banking Act, engavumela amabhange ukuba asebenze amabhizinisi e-canbis, idlulise iNdlu kodwa ivinjwe kaningi eSigqeni se-Batena. Okwamanje, ukumiswa kwe- [i-Mariana Offrony Revestment ne-Surement (MERIment) Act eGangendlweni ngo-2022] okunezimpawu ezishintshiwe, nakuba izimo eziwuhleliwe zezentengo, nakuba kungaveli lutho. Umphumela umphumela umphumela wokusebenza lapho abahwebi bekhona namazwe afana ne-Orlonean noma umphakathi umphakathi umphakathi umphakathi umphakathi umphakathi ume ngokuvikelwa kwezelele, futhi umbiko wezente, izimali, izimali ezingu-og.

Ukutadisha Icala 2: Ukuziphatha Okushintshashintshayo

Umthetho wokuthatha igebe ubeyindawo ekhethekile kahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni ngaphansi kwemfundiso yamandla kaMthetho-sisekelo. Noma kunjalo, imibuso eminingana iye yazama ukuphoqelela noma ukwenezela imithetho yezokufuduka kahulumeni, okuholela emacaleni angokomlando achaza imingcele yegunya likahulumeni.

Isinqumo SeNkantolo Ephakeme Ka - 2012 E - Arizona SB 1070

I-Arizona’s Sekela uMthetho Wethu We-Enictation and Safetyhours Act (SB 1070) ka-2010 yayiwumthetho kabanzi wezwe wokuqinisekisa ukufuduka emlandweni wanamuhla. Kwadingeka ukuba izikhulu zomthetho wezwe zinqume ukuthi noma ubani ezime noma eziboshweyo ukhona uma kucatshangwa ukuthi wayengenamthetho. Umthetho wasungula izijeziso zokungathwa ukuthwala amaphepha okubhalisa asemthethweni. Inkantolo ephakeme yakhipha izigwebo ezintathu, iphikisa ukuthi ukugcinwa kokufuduka kungumthwalo wezwe. [[FLT: 0] [FLT:] [irâna] [ibroa v. United States[FLD:2][FLT] [2] [202], iNkathiwe iziphakatha ezintathu zemithetho emiyalweni emiyalweni emine. Nokho, i-1964] Ize i-yonke, ifaka imvume yeze imvume yeze.[01]

Imiphumela ye-SB 1070 yaba negagasi lezindleko ezifanayo zikahulumeni e-Alabama, eGeorgia, nase-South Carolina, eziningi zazo ezabhekana nezinselele zenkantolo futhi zavalwa kancane. Ngokuphambene, njenge California isho ukuthi i- “accury” imithetho elinganisela ukubambisana neziphathimandla zezezokufuduka zikahulumeni. [[FLT:] United States v. California[FLD] [2018] [208], i-Trump ibekela imithetho yaseCalifornia inselele, kodwa izinkantolo zisekela kakhulu igunya leCalifornia, zicaphuna iSimende seshumi lezokuthutha nemfundiso emelene nezokulwa nomthetho. US ingabalelwa ngisho nezenzo ezingokomthetho.

Ukuhlolwa Kwezimo 3: Imithetho Yokulawula Izibhamu

ISichibiyelo Sesibili sinelungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali, njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ichaza, imisa indawo ephansi engokomthetho-mthetho, kodwa siphethe inkululeko ebanzi yokumisa imithetho eqine kakhulu noma engaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni. Ngemva I-Digational of Columbia v. Heller [2008] [] ne-McDonald v. Chicago[ [2010], inkantolo yenza kwacaca ukuthi ilunga ngokomthetho usebenza ezifundazweni, kodwa ayizange ilahle isimiso esikhona somthetho wesibhamu. Lokhu kwenza ukwahlukana okukhulu phakathi kwezigwebo ngezigwebo kanye nezinyathelo eziqinile.

Ukukhululwa Kwezwe Nokulawulwa Kwendawo

Izifunda eziningi − ikakhulukazi eNingizimu naseNtshona [1] ziye zamisa “imithetho enqabela ohulumeni bendawo ukuba bamise izimiso zezibhamu eziqinile kunemithetho kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iTexas inqabela amadolobha anjengo-Austin ekuvimbeleni izibhamu emapaki omphakathi, ngisho nangemva kokudubulana kwabantu abaningi. Ngokungafani, izifunda ezinjengeCalifornia, iNew York, neMassachusetts ziye zamisa imithetho eqinile yokuvimbela ukuhlasela izikhali, imithetho ebomvu yefulegi, nokulinda imingcele. I-Un - Freelian Un Handgund Handback Act idinga izigelemond ezintsha ezibonisa ukuhlangabezana nezimfuneko ezithile zokuphepha nemicriscope, ngokuphumelela ukuvimbela intengo yeze.

Uhulumeni umisa imithetho eyisisekelo ngomthetho wokulawula we-Gun Control Act ka-1968 kanye noMthetho we-Brady, ogunyaza ukuba isizinda sihlolwe abadayisi abagunyaziwe. Nokho, isithiwa “sibhamu sibonise imbobo yecala” sivumela abathengisi ukuba bashaye amasheke ezifundazweni eziningi. [ [Bipartisan Sobuteids Act [[FL] Act:1] yeminyango ekhuliswe izisekelo yesizinda yabathengi ngaphansi kwengu-21 futhi inikeze ukuxhaswa kwemithetho yefulegi ebomvu yemithetho ye-fulegi, kodwa ayivalangavali igelebhu yanga igebezo. Njengomphumela, isakhamuzi saseChicago engenisa imithetho edekayo yokuthenga izibhamu, khona ukubuya kwesinqumo esiqinile phakathi kwesinqumo se-R22] i-R222 [R2] i-R.[2] I-R.[2] Imvume yokwenyuk] i-osenyuk] i-ose.[2] I

Ukuhlola Indaba 4: Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile

Umthetho wendawo ezungezile unikeza isibonelo esivelele sobuphenye be-construction, lapho uhulumeni kahulumeni ubeka khona izindinganiso ezilinganiselwe futhi imibuso ingathatha khona isivikelo esiqinile. I-Celean Air Act, Clean Water Act, ne Resource Conservation and Recovery Act konke kuhlanganisa amalungiselelo okusetshenziswa kukahulumeni. Nokho, ukungavumelani ngokulandela izindinganiso zikahulumeni eziqinile, kanye nekhono lezwe lokuzidlula.

I-appler ehlanzekile yomthetho womoya wase California

ICalifornia inendawo ekhethekile ngaphansi kwe-Cease Air Act: ngoba inezindinganiso zemoto ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni kahulumeni umise eyayo, isifundazwe singafaka impondo ezingeni ze-EPA ukuze siqinise izindinganiso zayo eziqinile. Kusukela ngo-1970, iCalifornia ithole amakhambi amaningi, iwuvumela ukuba ubeke imingcele kumagesi afudukayo, ama-oxygen oxide, kanye ne-paceculetical compate. Amanye amazwe angasebenzisa izindinganiso zeCalifornia ngaphansi kwe-Parte 177 ye-Act, amise izinga lesizwe lokulawula izigaba ezingaphezu kweziyishumi nambili. Ngonyaka, umqondisi we-Trusmpmp wahraters orgianer, ukuba alawule amagesi afudukayo ezimotweni, aholele imoto enkantolo. I-Biden i-Eden ebuyiselwe e-Eparcercesssss, futhi i-Eunicepty, noma izimoto ze-Fogles. Zoulse.[0] Zombili, izinqul.[0]

Ngaphandle kwezimoto, izifundazwe ziyahlukahluka kakhulu ekusebenziseni kwazo igesi ekhishwayo, izindinganiso ezivuselelwayo ze-odoli, nokulahlwa kwemfucumfucu. ITexas, kuyilapho umholi wamandla omoya, ngokwezembali iziqondiso ze-EPA eziphikisayo ezitshalweni ezishiswa amalahle futhi zihileleke ekufakeni izithathiso zokuvimbela iCec Power Plan. Okwamanje, amazwe ase-Northeaster ahlanganyela e-Regionary Greenhouse Gastinitificie (RGGI), uhlelo lwe-part nohlelo olungagunyazenziswanga i-mthetho. Lemithetho kahulumeni encibilizayo idala impumelelo engoko nencishisiwe, ithonya izinga lokutshala amandla ahlanzekile, futhi ivinye imingcele yegunya likahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Cal Claus Act.

Ukutadisha Ngohlangothi 5: Imfundo Iwubudoda

Imfundo ngokuyinhloko iwumthwalo wemfanelo wezwe nezwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi, kodwa uhulumeni kahulumeni uye wandisa indima yawo ngokusekela imali nangemibandela engokomthetho wengqopha - mlando. Umphumela uyisimiso esinesizo kakhulu lapho imibuso inokuqonda okuphawulekayo khona, futhi lapho iziphathimandla zivame ukuveza khona imiphumela engahlosiwe.

Umfundi Wonke Uphumelela Endleleni Nokuvumelana NoMbuso

I-All Students Receeds Act (ESSA), eyasayinwa emthethweni ngo-2015, yathatha indawo ye-Child Lend Behind (NCLB) futhi yabuyisela ukulawula okuqinile kokuziphendulela nokuhlola izindinganiso ezikhona ezizweni. Ngaphansi kwe-NCLB, izifunda zadingeka ukuba zivivinye abafundi minyaka yonke ngokufunda nangokwezibalo futhi zihlangane nezisulu ezikhula kakhulu, nezijeziso eziqinile zezikole ezaphelelwa isikhathi esifushane. I-ESSA yalondoloza imfuneko yokuhlola kodwa yavumela amazwe ukuba azenzele izimiso zawo siqu, futhi inqume iziteshi ezikoleni eziphansi. Lokhu kushintsha kuholele ekungeneni okubanzi: ezinye izigaba zokukhula, ezinye izigxazulu ezigxile emazingeni okuthwele noma ekuhlolweni kwekholi, futhi ezimbalwa ziye zasuka ekuthatheni izinqunyweni kwezimiso eziphambili.

Umthetho we-freantl uthinta futhi imfundo ngezimiso zamalungelo omphakathi, njengesihloko IX (geneder equity) kanye no-Anterry onesici sokukhubazeka Imfundo Act (IDEA). kodwa ukumiswa kwalemithetho kuyahlukahluka. Isibonelo, izigungu ziye zathatha izikhundla ezihlukene zokuthi iSihloko se-IX kufanele sisebenzise kanjani ukuguqula abafundi, ezinye zifune izikole zivumele ukuthatha i-galelo lobudoda kanye nokudlulisa imithetho evimbela ukukhubazeka. Umnyango wemfundo ohlongozwayo ngaphansi kwe-Bhiden, ushiye izikole zisesimweni sokungaqiniseki. Ngokufanayo, ukuxhasa kwesikole kuqekelelwa kwezindinganiso (ngokuthiwa kokwamukelwa kwezindinganiso zikaCorme State, okuthiwazisa ezinye izimfuneko ezithiwe kamuva) futhi kunqunywe izimfuneko ze-credio enkulu, futhi kunquisi yemithetho elawula zonke izimo zezemfundo.

Ukuhlolwa Kwezimo 6: Imithetho Eveza Impilo Nezisu

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme cishe iminyaka engu-50 Roe v. Wade [773]) yanikeza ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni lokukhipha isisu, nakuba izifundazwe zingalawula phakathi kwemingcele. Ukuguqulwa kwecala [ Roe e-[FLT]] e-Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [[FLT:] [20222]) yabuyisela umbuzo wokukhishwa kwesisu esingokomthetho ezifundazweni, ifaka i-RGenethi esheshayo futhi eqondweni eliphawulekayo ezweni lonke.

Ukubukeka KwamaDobh Brack

Phakathi kwezinyanga ezithile zesinqumo amaDobbs . Ngaso sinye isikhathi, amazwe angu-13 aye abangela “ukuvinjelwa okucishe kube cishe kuphele” ngemithetho ekhona noma umthetho omusha. Lezi zihlanganisa izimo ezifana neTexas, i-Oklahoma, neMissouria, lapho ukukhipha isisu kungekho emthethweni ngaphandle kwezimo eziphuthumayo noma ukudlwengulwa (ngokungalingani). Ngaso leso sikhathi, amanye amazwe acishe aqhelelene neCalifornia, New York, ne-Illinonia ebekwe imithetho evikelayo nokwandisa ukungena, kuhlanganise nezivikela kanye neziguli eziphuma ngaphandle kwe-sohlangothini zophenyo. Lokhu kuye kwadala igebe yokwehlukana ezindaweni lapho abesifazane abafana noLouisiana ezindaweni eziqhele kakhulu ukuze bathathe ukukhishwa komthetho, uhambo olunzima kakhulu lwemithetho enziwa ngemithetho evimbela ukukhishwa kwemikhambiso noma ukukhishwa kwemizwa.

Indima kahulumeni isele incintiswano. Icala likahulumeni liphikisa ngokuthi imithetho kahulumeni, njenge-Emergency Medical Treat and Labor Act (EMTALA), idinga izibhedlela ukuba zinikeze ukukhishwa kwesisu ezimweni eziphuthumayo, ngisho nasezimweni ezivinjelwe. Leyo ndima yabekelwa inselele enkantolo, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme yavumela uIdaho's cishe-all ukuvinjelwa kokusebenza kuyilapho iqhubeka. Umbuso awukadlulisi amalungelo okukhishwa kwesisu, ushiya lempikiswano ngokuphelele ezimweni eziphuthumayo. [[FLT:] [0] [inkantolo] Izinkantolo ezikhuphule i - ngokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho ewushintshayo. Inhlangano yezindawo ezingokomthetho.[FLT][FLT][FF:2] [2] [5]

Isiphetho

Ucwaningo lwezezimali oluyisithupha olungenhla lubonisa ukuthi ithonya likahulumeni nohulumeni nomthetho kahulumeni alikho nje ukucatshangelwa, kodwa limane libumba ukuphila kwangempela, izimboni, nomthetho-sisekelo. Kusukela ekubekeni umnotho wezwe nemithetho yokuthutha abantu ezindaweni ezihlukene kuhlangane namalungelo empilweni yempi, imfundo ephelelisiweyo, ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kwezwe negunya likahulumeni linquma imiphumela ethinta wonke umuntu waseMelika. Umbuso wezwe ezindaweni ezifana nezohwebo nomthetho wezentengiselwano nomthetho wesizwe uyaqhubeka ukhona ngokuhlola okuqinile kwezwe, futhi izinkantolo zifeza indima ebalulekile ekulweni kwezezindaba. Njengoba i-Cangressssss nehhovisi legatsha eliphethe iqala imicimbi, futhi njengoba iNkampatho ephakeme iveza izenzakalo ezintsha ezihlokweni zezokuphatha ukulawulwa kwezwe njengendawo ephakeme, imbulunga iqhubeke ikhona. Abafundisinye nabafundi namalungelo amaqembu ohulumeni amaqembu alawulayo amaqembu abalulekile alawulayo alawulayo futhi alawulayo alawulayo amaqembu alawulayo.