Umqondo kahulumeni wokuphamba umelela ukuhluleka okunzima kokulinganisela phakathi kwegunya lezwe nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Kwenzeka lapho indikimba ebusayo isebenzisa igunya elingaphezu kwesilinganiso esivunyelwe umthetho, umthetho wayo, noma izimiso eziyisisekelo zomphakathi okhululekile. Nakuba ohulumeni benikezwe amandla okubambisana ukuze balondoloze ukuhleleka, banikeze izimpahla ezihlangene, futhi baqinisekise ukulondeka kwesizwe, amandla okusetshenziswa kwalo kanye izakhamuzi ahloselwe ukuvikela izingozi ezihlala njalo. Ukuqonda ukubonakaliswa komlando nokwesimanje kwalobuchuku akuwona nje umsebenzi wemfundo yemfundo; kuwumkhuba odingekile wokulondoloza izimpahla eziqinile, nokuqinisekisa ukulondeka kwezimiso zentando yeningi. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuhlolwa okungoko kukahulumeni, ukuhluza izimbangela zabo, ukucunukuthwa kwemiphumela, ukuhlasela imiphumela ebucayi.

Izindlela zokuphambana ziyahlukahluka. Zingabonakala njenge-atnea, bureaucratic jown : ukuhlanganiswa kweziqondiso zezikhulu ezingafakwanga noma ukwanda kwezimiso zenhlangano. Okunye, zingaba nokuthatha ngamandla ngokuphazima kweso, okubangelwa ukwesaba, impi, noma izinkinga zezomnotho. Kuzo zonke izimo, ukuthethelela kwamanje kuyafana: ukulondeka, noma ukukhubazeka okukhulu. Nokho, imiphumela emide ngokuvamile iveza umfanekiso oyinkimbinkimbi nokhathaza kakhulu.

Umlando Wokuhlasela Okungaphezu Kwendlela Uhulumeni Owake Wabhekana Ngayo Nayo

Ukulwa namandla obugovu kudala njengohulumeni ngokwawo. ERoma lasendulo, iSigele sasinganika umashiqela amandla aphelele ngezikhathi zesimo esiphuthumayo, umkhuba owagcina uvule indlela yobushiqela obuhlala njalo bukaJulius Caesar kanye nokuphela kweRepublic. Isiko lomthetho laseNgilandi linikeza esinye isisekelo esibucayi, ikakhulukazi impi yokulwa neStar Chamber, inkantolo edume kabi ngemithetho yayo eyimfihlo, izenzakalo zangasese, nokuhlushwa ukuze ikhiphe izono. Ukuqedwa kwayo ngo-1641 kwaba ukunqoba okungokoqobo lwenqubo efanele.

Abasunguli bomthetho-mthetho obhalwe eUnited States, abafundwa kakhulu kule zindaba, bakha ngokucophelela isimiso somthetho-sisekelo esiklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukugxiliswa kwamandla. Badala uhulumeni odwetshwe imibuso nemingcele ecacile, njengaleyo ebekwe kuyiBill of Rights. Nokho, ubuhle obungabonakali bomthetho-sisekelo obhalweyo abuqiniseki ukugcinwa kwawo. ISishaya-mthetho wokuqala samisa i-Alen neSigqizo seMibukiso, ebonisa ukuthi isilingo sokuhlasela asisoze sasuswa nhlobo esihlalweni samandla. I-Abraham Lincoln's yeHabeas corpus phakathi ne-Owrow Wilson ngenkathi yeMpi Yomphakathi ne-Espionage ne-Sction phakathi neMpi Yezwe I ibonisa ukuthi ukucindezelwa kwesizwe imicimbi ephakathi kwemibuso.

  • IRome Republic to Empire: Ukuguqula kwabonisa indlela amandla aphuthumayo esikhashana angaba ngayo amathuluzi ahlala njalo okubusa kwempoqo.
  • I-English Star Chamber: uphawu lwegunya lobukhosi elilawula amalungelo omthetho ovamile nobulungisa bezemvelo.
  • Ama-predent aseMelika angaphambili: Izenzo ze-Alien ne-Sedition, Ukususa iMpi Yombango, kanye nokushushisa iWWI-era kwamisa izindlela ezikhathazayo zokucindezela ukungavumelani.

Ukutadisha Indaba 1: I - Alien Ne - Sedition Acts (1798)

Iqanjwe phakathi kwe-"Quasi-War" neFrance, imithetho emine eyaziwa njenge-Alien and Sedition Acts yamelela uvivinyo lokuqala olukhulu lweSichibiyelo Sokuqala. I-Federalist Party, elawula kokubili iSishaya-Mkhandlu nobumongameli ngaphansi kukaJohn Adams, yayisaba ithonya laseFrance nabafuduki ababethambekele ekusekeleni i-Democratic Republican Party ephikisayo. I-Naturalment yandisa imfuneko yokuba izakhamuzi zesizwe kusukela eminyakeni emihlanu kuya kwengu-14. I-AlienFrien Fries Act yavumela umongameli ukuba axoshe noma imuphi umuntu ongeyena umongameli we-citizene "osengozini yokuthula nokuphepha kwe-United States" i-Alien Nes Act yokugunyaza umongameli noma ukubopha izakhamuzi besizwe sesizwe sesizwe phakathi nesikhathi senkathi yenkathi yenkathi yenkathi yenkathi yenkathi yenyanga yenyanga yenyanga yenyanga yenyanga yenyanga.

Nokho, okwakudume kakhulu kulezi zindawo ezine kwakuyi-Sedition Act. Kwakwenza kube yicala ukusakaza "inkohliso, ihlazo, futhi umbhalo onesihluku" kuhulumeni wase-U.S. Congress, noma umongameli. Lomthetho wawuyisikhali esiqondile sokulwa nokungavumelani kwezombangazwe. Imiphumela yawo yayishesha futhi inzima. Abantu abangaphezu kwamashumi amabili baboshwa ngaphansi koMthetho, kuhlanganise nabahleli bamaphephandaba nelungu leSishaya-Hulumeni, uMat Lyon, owaboshelwa ukugxeka uMongameli u-Adams. Amajaji namajaji ayeyimela ngokukhungathekisa, eguqula izinkantolo zaba amathuluzi okucindezela abashokobezi.

Imiphumela Nezinsolo

IzEnzo zabangela isiphepho sezombangazwe. uThomas Jefferson noJames Madison bafaka ngasese iSigqibo saseKentucky nesaseVirginia, esaphikisa ngokuthi imibuso yayinelungelo lokuqeda imithetho kahulumeni engekho emthethweni. Nakuba imfundiso yokuchitha izikhali yayizoba nomlando wayo siqu wenkinga, lezi zinqumo zahlela impikiswano ezungeze amalungelo ezwe njengendlela yokuhlola uhulumeni ophathwe kabi. Umthetho womphakathi wawuwukhungathekisa futhi wanikela ngokuqondile ekukhetheni uThoma Jefferson Jefferson ngo-1800, ngokuvamile ubizwa ngokuthi "Uguquko lwangowekhulu lwango-1800". UJeffeffer wathethelela labo ababoshelwa ngaphansi kwe-Sdition Act, futhi imithetho engathandeki (ngaphandle kwe-Alive Nemiglo Act) yavunyelwa ukuba iphele noma i-Reledmial Act. Isifundo sabekwa ngokucacile: [F:]

Funda umbhalo wokuqala we-Alien ne-Sedition Acts eNational Archives.

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala 2: Ukuhlolwa KwamaJapane (1942 - 946)

Mhlawumbe esinye sezenzakalo ezidabukisa kakhulu zikahulumeni abaphamba kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika senzeka phakathi neMpi Yezwe II. Ngemva kokuhlasela iPearl Harbor, uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt wasayinwa uMthetho Olawulayo 9066, ogunyaza abaphathi bempi ukuba bakhethe "izindawo zempi" lapho noma bonke abantu ababengakhishwa khona. Nakuba lomthetho ungashongo iqembu elithile lohlanga, wasetshenziselwa ukususa nokuphoqa abantu abangaba ngu-120 000 bohlupho, ababili ababeyizakhamuzi zaseMelika. Lesisenzo sakhuthazwa amashumi eminyaka ubandlululo lwezinhlanga, umona, nempi.

Umthetho othethelelayo kahulumeni − isidingo sempi nokulondeka kwesizwe — kwahlolwa. Akukho ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi okufanayo kwasetshenziswa kumaMelika aseJalimane noma ama-Italy, naphezu kweU.S. elwa neJalimane ne-Italy. Amakamu aphakathi, ngokunganaki abizwa "izindawo zokuhlala," ayesendaweni ecekelwe phansi futhi ezungezwe ucingo oluvalekile nabalindi abahlomile. Imikhaya yanikezwa izinsuku zokulahla amakhaya ayo, amabhizinisi, kanye nezinto zokuphila, ukulahlekelwa okubhubhisayo okungokomnotho okulinganiselwa ezigidini zezigidi zezigidi zamaRandi ngezindinganiso zanamuhla.

Umphumela Ongokomthetho Nokuxolisa Kwesizwe

INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukungavumelani komthetho-mthetho emacaleni anjengaye Korimatsu v. United States (1944), isinqumo esiye salahlwa kabanzi. UMahluleli uRobert H. Jackson wamelana necala, exwayisa ngokuthi isinqumo sizakuqamba amanga "njengesikhali esithwele" silungele noma yiliphi igunya lesikhathi esizayo. Emashumini eminyaka kamuva, kwavela ubufakazi obuye baveza ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise noMqondisi u-FBI, u-Edgar Hoover noMnyango weMpi, wafihla imibiko yokuthi amaJapane ayengethwe usongo.

Imiphumela yalokhu kuphambana yayibhubhisa. Izizukulwane zabhekana nosizi lokulahlekelwa ukuzibusa, isithunzi, nokwethemba uhulumeni wazo. I-Civil Libertes Act ka-1988, eyasayinwa nguMongameli Ronald Reagan, yaxolisa futhi yanikeza iziqondiso ze-$200,000 kulokhu kulandelana. Icala liyisibonelo esinamandla sokuhluleka kwejaji lokuvikela idlanzana eliphansi nengozi yokuvumela ukuphazanyiswa okuthandwayo ukuba kuthathe imingcele. Igcizelela isimiso sokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kumelwe uvikele amalungelo abantu abancane kakhulu, hhayi nje iningi.

[[UMTL:0] Ukuveza okuhlangenwe nakho kobuningi baseMelika ngobuciko bemiklamo eSmithsonian Magazine [[FL:1].

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala 3: Umthetho Ophathelene Nezifo E - USA (2001)

Ukuhlasela kwamaphekula ngo-September 11, 2001, kwabangela isidingo esisheshayo nesinamandla sokuvimbela ukuhlasela kukahulumeni esikhathini esizayo. UMkhandlu washesha ukudlula iUniting and Engliting America ngokunikeza iMatters Notivement Ene-Act to Intercept ne-Obstrucle Terrorism (USA PARITRIOTT) Athathe izinsuku ezingu - 45 nje ngemva kokuhlasela. I-Act yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuqapha nokuhlola kanye namandla ezinhlangano zomthetho kanye nezinolwazi. Nakuba abasekeli bathi kwakubalulekile ekuxhumani amachashaza ezweni lanamuhla, inkululeko yomphakathi yaxwayisa ngokuhleleka okukhulu ukuthi ivikela imfihlo.

Amalungiselelo oMthetho aphikisana kakhulu ayehlanganisa "ukuhamba ngemibhobho ye-warms" (eyayivumela ukuqashelwa komuntu kunokuba ithuluzi), ukufinyelela ku "amarekhodi ezebhizinisi" (kuhlanganise amarekhodi omtapo wezincwadi, amafayela ezokwelapha, kanye nemininingwane yezezimali) ngaphansi kwe-Cult 215, kanye ne-isunuance of National Security Letters (i-NSSLs) eyayineziqondiso zokuvimbela abaqondisi bezincwadi ukuba bazitholele isicelo. Uhulumeni waphikisa lamathuluzi wawagxeka kakhulu ukubhuntshisa amaqhinga obugqizi. Nokho, ukuphenya, ikakhulukazi ngoMnyango Wezinhloli wobubulungisa, wembula ukuxhaphaza nokuphatha kabi kwalezi mibuso.

Izivumo Zeqhwa Nezinguquko Ezingokomthetho

Isilinganiso sesimo sokuqapha esakhiwa ngaphansi komthetho wePatriot Act nomthetho owalandela sambulwa umphakathi ngo-2013 ngomcuphi wekhwelo u-Edward Snowden. I-Prepoodis yabonisa ukuthi i-National Security Agency (MESA) yayiqoqa izitembu zocingo zezigidi zamaMelika ezingasolwanga nganoma yibuphi ubugebengu. Leyayayambulo yabangela impikiswano yezwe lonke neyomhlaba wonke yokulinganisela phakathi kokulondeka nokufihla imfihlo. Izinkantolo zagcina zihlasele uhlelo lwe-metametriamssssssss ezandalwn njengomthetho ongekho emthethweni, futhi i-USA Free Act ngo-2015 zadlulisela i-USA Freedom Act.

Imiphumela yenkathi yomthetho wePatriot Act isazwakala. Ukuthembela ekuphatheni kukahulumeni ukwaziswa komuntu siqu kuye kwawohloka kakhulu. Imiphumela "enamandla" ekwakhulumeni nakuhlanganeni" (lapho abantu abazihlolelayo ngenxa yokwesaba ukuhlolwa kukahulumeni"yingozi ebhalwe kahle yokuqashelwa kwezindawo ezigcwele. Impikiswano iyaqhubeka namuhla phezu kokukhonjwa "amathumbu" nokuvuselelwa kwemithetho elawulayo ngaphansi kwengxenye 702. Umlando kaPatriot Act ubonisa ukuthi imithetho idlula ngokwesasasa, ngaphandle kokukhomba nokuqondisa okuqinile, ngokushesha kungaba amathuluzi avamile okuhlola.

[[UMTL:0] I-ACLU inikeza ukuwohloka okuningiliziwe kwamandla okuhlola ngaphansi koMthetho wePatriot .

Izindawo Ezivelele Zokuhlasela Kwanamuhla

Isenzakalo sokuphamba kukahulumeni asikho ezincwadini zomlando kuphela. Izenzakalo zamuva zinikeza indawo ecebile yokuhlola ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamandla kahulumeni namalungelo abantu. Ubhadane lwembulunga yonke lwe-COVID emhlabeni wonke lwabona ohulumeni bebeka imingcele engakaze ibe khona ekuhambeni, engqungqungquthela, nasezentengisweni. Nakuba izinkinga zezempilo zomphakathi zithethelela izinga elithile lokungenela okuphuthumayo, ubude bobungako nokuqina, ukuvalwa kwesikole, nemithetho yokugoma ebangela ukuba lezi zenzo eziyingozi zivele zimiswe ngezindlela zomphakathi noma zidlulele igunya elingokomthetho likahulumeni.

Ngokuvumelana nalokhu, ukukhula kwesifundazwe sokuphatha kuye kwaphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngegatsha likahulumeni "lesine" amanxusa aphethe, asebenzisa amandla amakhulu okwenza umthetho anokulandisa okulinganiselwe kubavoti, angakha ngokuphumelelayo imithetho ethinta cishe zonke izici zokuphila komnotho nokuphila komuntu siqu. Imfundiso engagunyaziwe, isimiso somthetho esibambe ukuthi i-Congress ayinakudlulisela amandla ayo emithetho ezinhlangano eziphethe, ikhuthaza ukuvuselelwa kwayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izimpikiswano mayelana nemithetho ephakeme evimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu, ukulawula inkulumo yezenhlalakahle yezokuxhumana, noma ukuhlanganisa iziteshi zemfundo ezikoleni ziqokomisa ukubola njalo kwemithetho ye-Americanstrune, lapho amazinga ahlukene kahulumeni emingcele yamandla awo phezu komuntu ngamunye.

Izifundo Ezikhuthazelela Umphakathi Okhululekile

Ukusebenzisa izifundo kulokhu kuhlola kwembula indlela engaguquguquki. Okokuqala, umthetho kumele ube yindawo ephansi, hhayi nje ebanzi. Uhulumeni ungalandela izinqubo zawo siqu ezingokomthetho futhi wenze ukungalungi okukhulu. Inkululeko yangempela ifuna ukuba imithetho evumelana nezimiso ezisekelwe enqubeni engokomthetho yenqubo efanelekile, isivikelo esilinganayo, nenkululeko. Ukuhlola okubhaliwe komthetho-sisekelo kumelwe kusekelwe yintando yabantu kanye nento ezimele yokuwugcina.

Okwesibili, amandla omthetho ahlala ekhona ngokuyingozi. Izilinganiso eziye zathathwa ngokusabela esimweni esibucayi ngokuvamile zidlula inhlekelele. 'umehluko' uba yinto entsha. Izigaba ezinamandla zokushona kwelanga, ezifuna ukuphinde zibhalwe, zingamathuluzi abalulekile. Ngakho --ke i-accomplitted ne-mediase contrest. I-media yadlala indima yesibindi kuma-1790 ekumelani i-Sédition Act, njengoba nje izintatheli zanamuhla nezimfeli ze-apple idale ukucusuluza ekulondeni kwesizwe.

Okwesithathu, ukuthatha i-federal kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akuyona imiqondo ephelelwe isikhathi. Kuyizakhiwo zenkululeko. Uma igatsha elilodwa noma izinga likahulumeni liqala ukuthatha ijubane ngokweqile, elinye lingasebenza njengetshekisi. Abameli bezwe bamangalela uhulumeni wezwe, uMkhandlu onqaba ukuxhasa izinhlelo zokungahlangani, futhi amajaji ashaya iziqondiso zezikhulu ezingekho emthethweni zonke ziyizici zesimiso esiklanyelwe ukuhlukanisa amandla nokuvikela umuntu. Isifundo sezakhamuzi singahlala singangatshazwa kakhulu ekuhlolweni kwemikhankatho yamandla, hhayi ukuthi iyinhloso elungile kangakanani. I-vilial ayisona isenzo sesikhathi, kodwa umsebenzi ohlala njalo.[FFOT][3]

Isiphetho

Umlando kahulumeni wokuphamba uqaphe inganekwane eqanjiwe eqanjwe kuzo zonke izizwe. Kusukela ku-Alien nase-Sedition Acts kuya ekuhlolweni okukhulu kwenkathi yobuchwepheshe, inqubo iyaphinda: igagasi lokwesaba noma inhlekelele, ukunikezwa amandla angavamile, ukubekeka kwesidingo, nokuhlelwa kwemiphumela yenkululeko elahlekileyo. Ukuhlolwa okuhlolwe lapha akuzona izenzakalo ezihlukene kodwa kunalokho izimpawu zenselele ephindaphindwayo ekubusweni kwe-active à jpt organ org, ukuthambekela okuyisisekelo kwamandla ukuze kwande kuze kufinyelelwe.

Ukuqonda lezi zenzakalo ezingokomlando kuyisinyathelo sokuqala sokwakha isivikelo esiqinile sokumelana nekusasa elingenekayo. Umphakathi okhululekile awuxhomekile ekuthonyeni kwabaholi bawo, kodwa ezinhlanganweni eziqinile zezindaba ezikhululekile, inkantolo ezimele, isakhamuzi esiqaphile, nokunamathela ngokuqinile emigoqweni engokomthetho. Njengoba sibhekene nezinselele ezintsha zokuvikela ikusasa. Ukuzimela kwembulunga yonke, nezinkinga zempilo zembulunga yonke, kanye nezinsongo eziphazamisayo zokulondeka kwesikhathi esidlule zisebenza njengesiqondiso esiyisisekelo. Ukuhlolwa okuphelele kuhulumeni oyisifundiswa nowenziwa abantu abangawangavumelani namalungelo abo, futhi amandla awo onke, ahlala enecala ngokuvumelana nokuvunyelwa kwababuswayo.