Imisebenzi Yezinkantolo Ezihlukahlukene: Isiqondiso Sesimiso Somthetho Sase - United States

Isimiso somthetho se-United States sakhiwe enxanxatheleni yezinkantolo ezisebenza kokubili emazingeni ohulumeni nawombuso. Inkantolo ngayinye inendima ehlukile, igunya, nemithwalo yemfanelo. Ukuqonda lemisebenzi akuyona nje imisebenzi yabafundi bomthetho i̬ isiza isakhamuzi ngasinye ukuba siqonde indlela ukwahlulela okuphathwa ngayo, indlela izingxabano ezixazululwa ngayo, nendlela imithetho echazwa futhi iphoqelelwe ngayo. Lesiqondiso siphula izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zezinkantolo, imisebenzi yazo eyisisekelo, izinhlobo zecala esizisingathayo, nokuthi kungani lolulwazi lunikezwa abafundi, abafundisi, nabantu abaningi.

Isimiso Senkantolo Ye - Dual: I - Federal NoHulumeni

I-United States isebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso senkantolo ezimbili, okusho ukuthi kunezimiso ezihlukene kodwa ezihlalisanayo zezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lesi simiso sisekelwe kumthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., onika uhulumeni othile amandla athile kuyilapho ugcina wonke amanye amagunya ezwe. Ngenxa yalokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha amacala ahilela imithetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-Constitution, nezingxabano phakathi kwezindawo noma phakathi kwezizwe. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, ngakolunye uhlangothi, zisingatha izimpi - hlangothi eziningi zezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezingo-̬ zisingatha ukuphula umthetho wezehlukaniso, izimpikiswano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano zezivumelwano, kanye nezigebelele.

Izinkantolo Ezizimele

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinemingcele elinganiselwe, okusho ukuthi zingalalela amacala agunyazwe uMthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho kahulumeni kuphela. Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sihlelwe ngezinhlalo ezintathu eziyinhloko:

  • U.S. izinkantolo zesigodi ̵ Lezi izinkantolo zokuqulwa kwesimiso sombuso. Kunezinkantolo zesigodi ezingu-94 kulo lonke izwe, futhi zizwa kokubili amacala omphakathi nawobugebengu aphakama ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni. Izibonelo zihlanganisa izimpikiswano ezisemthethweni, izindaba zentela zikahulumeni, kanye namacala okushushumbisa izidakamizwa. Izinkantolo zesigodi zisingatha futhi amacala emingcele ehlukene ezweni i-̬ izigebengu phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezizwe ezihlukene lapho isilinganiso sempikiswano sidlula khona u-R35 000.
  • U.S. izinkantolo zokudlulisa amacala & #811; zibuye zibizwe ngokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda, lezinkantolo ezithatha iziphakamiso eziphakathi zihlola izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda nasemaqulwini eziphathimandla. Kukhona izinkantolo zesifunda eziyi-13 zezicelo. Umsebenzi wazo oyinhloko ukuqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa ngokufanele phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala. Azibambi ukuqulwa okusha noma zizwe ubufakazi obusha; kunalokho, zibukeza umlando wokuqulwa kwecala nezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho.
  • U.S. iNkantolo Ephakeme ̵ inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingummeli wokugcina womthetho kahulumeni nencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. Izwa inani elincane lamacala unyaka ngamunye, elikhethwe ngenqubo ebizwa ngokuthi i-certiorir[. Izinqumo zayo zimisa izibopho ezimisa iziqondiso zazo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi.

Ngaphezu kwalamazinga amathathu ayinhloko, isimiso sikahulumeni sihlanganisa izinkantolo ezikhethekile ezinjenge U.S. Bankruptic Courts, U.S. iNkantolo yeTheocratic[, [[FLT]], [[FLT]] U.S. iNkantolo yeNkantolo yezentengiso [[FLT]], [[FLT]] U, ephethe izikhalo zokugunyaza nokusholoza okumelene nohulumeni. Lezinkantolo zikhona ukusingatha izindawo ezithile ezidinga ukuhlobana komthetho.

Izinkantolo ZoMbuso

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya elivamile i-̵ zingalalela cishe noma yiluphi uhlobo lwecala ngaphandle kokuba ligcinelwe izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngokuqondile. Umbuso ngamunye unesimiso sawo somthetho, kodwa eziningi zilandela isakhiwo esinezingxenye ezintathu ezilinganayo:

  • Izinkantolo eziPhakeme (noma izinkantolo ezinkulu) ̫ lezi ziyizisebenzi ezisebenzayo zesimiso sombuso. Zizwa amacala obugebengu ahlanekezelwe, amacala omphakathi ahilela izizumbulu zemali, izindaba zomthetho womkhaya (i-divoce, imvume yokuwinwa kwabantwana), kanye nezinkantolo zezesivumelwano. Izifunda eziningi futhi zinezinkantolo ezilinganiselwe zezindaba ezincane, njengezinkantolo zezimoto, izinkantolo zecala ezikhomba izivumelwano zomthetho, nezinkantolo zikamasipala.
  • Izinkantolo eziphakanyiswayo & #821; Akuwona wonke umbuso onenkantolo ephakathi (cishe 40 do), kodwa kuleyo eyenza, lezi zinkantolo zibukeza izinqumo zenkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala zamaphutha angokomthetho. Zisiza ekukhululeni inkantolo ephakeme yokusingatha ukudluliswa nganoma isiphi isikhalo.
  • Isifundazwe samankantolo Aphakeme ̵ inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu esifundazweni ngasinye. Izwa izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo eziphakathi (noma ngokuqondile ezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala ezisezindaweni ezincane). Izinkantolo eziphakeme zoMbuso ziyigunya lokugcina emthethweni kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithetho-mthetho-mthetho kazwe, ngaphandle kokuba kuhileleke umbuzo kahulumeni.

Isimiso senkantolo esimbaxambili sivumela amazwe ukuba asingathe izindaba eziningi zendawo kuyilapho uhulumeni ukhuluma ngezinkinga zesizwe.

Umtapo womtholalwazi weSikhungo ngasinye Senkantolo

Nakuba izinqubo eziqondile zihlukahluka, izinkantolo kuzo zonke izigaba zifeza imisebenzi emithathu emikhulu: ukuthola amaqiniso, ukusebenzisa umthetho, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi kulungile ngokubukezwa.

Izinkantolo Zokuqulwa Kwamacala

Izinkantolo zamacala zisuke ziqala lapho amacala eqala khona, futhi imisebenzi yazo eyinhloko ihlanganisa:

  • [[AKT:0] Ukuthola-kahle & #821; umahluleli noma amajaji uzwa ubufakazi, uhlola ofakazi, futhi unqume ukuthi kwenzekani ngempela. Lena indima ebaluleke kakhulu ngoba amaqiniso atholakalayo enkantolo ngokuvamile agcina.
  • Usebenzisa umthetho ̵ umahluleli unquma ukuthi yimiphi imithetho engokomthetho esebenzayo futhi ayale abasizi-jaji ngokufanelekile. Ecaleni lasebhentshini (akukho jaji), umahluleli wenza kokubili ukuthola iqiniso nokwenza isinqumo esingokomthetho.
  • ikhipha izahlulelo zecala ̵ Ngemva kwecala, inkantolo ikhipha isinqumo (ekuqulweni kwecala lejaji) noma isahlulelo (ekuqulweni kwecala lebhentshi). Lokhu kuxazulula ukuphikisana futhi kungahlanganisa iziyalo zokulimaza, imiyalo, noma izigwebo zobugebengu.

Izinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala ngokuvamile zikhuluma ngokuqondile nesimiso somthetho. Ijaji likahulumeni lichaza [ ukuthi izinkantolo zesifunda ziyi-"indawo yokungena" cishe kuwo wonke amacala kahulumeni.

Izinkantolo Eziphakamiso

Izinkantolo zokuqulwa kwamacala aziqhubeli macala amasha. Kunalokho, zihlola amacawa enkantolo enkantolo ukuze ziqinisekise ukuthi umthetho usebenza kahle nokuthi amalungelo ommangalelwa avikelwe. Imisebenzi yabo ihlanganisa:

  • Ukubheka irekhodi ̵ inkantolo ifunda ama-replypy, ihlola ubufakazi, nokubukeza okwenziwa phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala.
  • [ [[#821]; inkantolo inquma ukuthi umahluleli wecala wenza iphutha ekusebenziseni umthetho. Amaphutha avamile ahlanganisa iziyalezo ezingafanele zejaji, ukuvumela ubufakazi obungaqondakali, noma ukuchaza ngokungeyikho umthetho.
  • Ukukhipha umphumela [ & #821; Inkantolo ye-appellate ingaqinisa [ [i-application] [icala]) isinqumo esiphansi senkantolo, [[[FLT:]] i-'ehlukile[, ne (igcine) icala lokwahlulela okusha, noma [[FLT:]] ukwahlulela. Kwezinye izimo, inkantolo ingasikhipha isikhalo.

Izinkantolo eziningi zezokuqulwa kwecala zizwa amacala emabhodini amajaji amathathu, nakuba amanye amacala abalulekile ezwakala e-' en'e-nc (ngawo wonke amajaji kuleyosifunda). Indinga-kansonga yokubukeza iyahluka kuye ngokuthi indaba ingeyoqiniso (ebalulekile) noma umthetho (engekho).

Izinkantolo Eziphakeme

Izinkantolo eziphakeme, zikahulumeni nombuso, zisebenza njengenkantolo yokugcina yezindlela zokukhetha.

  • Ukubukeza okungokwesiko & #821]; amandla okumemezela imithetho noma izenzo zokuphatha ngaphandle komthetho. Lomsebenzi uyaziwa kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S., esungulwe burybry v. Madison [183]).
  • Ukuxazulula izingxabano ̵ iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. ixazulula ukungaboni phakathi kwezinkantolo zesifunda zezicelo, iqinisekisa incazelo efanayo yomthetho kahulumeni. Izinkantolo eziphakeme zenza okufanayo ngezwe lazo.
  • ibeka isibonelo [[#821]; Izinqumo ezivela enkantolo ephakeme zibopha zonke izinkantolo eziphansi kulelozwe. Lesisimiso se stare decis[ siqinisekisa ukuzinza nokucaciswa emthethweni.

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. inezinqumo ezigunyaziwe i-̵ kukhetha ukuthi yimaphi amacala okuzwa. Kusukela ezicelayo ezingaba ngu - 7 000 unyaka ngamunye, iNkantolo inikeza incazelo engcono kwabangaphansi kwekhulu. Lokhu kukhetha kuvumela iNkantolo ukuba igxile emacaleni abalulekile esizwe.

Izinhlobo Zamacala Ngaphesheya Kwezinkantolo

Nakhu ukuhlukanisa okuyinhloko:

Icala lesigebengu

Icala eliyikhokhayo lihlanganisa izingxabano phakathi kwamaqembu azimele (abantu, amabhizinisi, izinhlangano) noma phakathi kweqembu nohulumeni lapho uhulumeni engamangaleli ubugebengu. Izibonelo zihlanganisa izimpikiswano zesivumelwano, ukumangalelana kwempahla, izimpikiswano zomkhaya, nezindaba zomthetho. I-axilentiff (impimpi) ifuna imbuyiselo noma uhlelo lwenkantolo, hhayi isijeziso. Indinganiso yobufakazi yi-"ekwahlulelwa kobufakazi" (cishe i-apointssion of the proces").

Icala eliwubufakazi lilethwa uhulumeni (umshushisi) ngomuntu noma inhlangano emangalelwa ukwephula umthetho wobugebengu. Uhulumeni ufuna isijeziso esinjengenhlawulo, ukugcinwa, noma ukuboshwa. Indinganiso yobufakazi yile "engenakungatshazwa ngokunengqondo"̬ isigqebhezana esikhulu. Izigebengu zihlukaniswa zibe izigebengu (amacala amakhulu afana nokubulala, ukuphanga) kanye nokungalungisi (amacala angenacala afana nokweba okuncane).

Ngokwesibonelo, abamangalelwa becala banelungelo elingokomthetho lokuqulwa kwecala futhi bamelelwe ngokomthetho.

Ukuzimela Okuhlukahlukene

Ukuze icala liqulwe enkantolo kahulumeni, kumelwe libe khona nakulokhu:

  • Avement ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni (igunya lombuzo), njengokuzisholo ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo, umthetho kahulumeni, noma isivumelwano sikahulumeni; noma
  • izigaba ezihlanganisayo ezivela ezizweni ezihlukene (umbuso wezwe) uhlanganisa isilinganiso sempikiswano esingaphezu kuka $75 000 (R150).

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, ngokungafani, zinegunya elivamile futhi zingalalela noma iliphi icala elingangeni egunyeni likahulumeni kuphela.

Izenzakalo Ezikhethekile

Amacala athile adinga izinkantolo ezikhethekile ngenxa yekhono lawo noma isimo esiyingqayizivele:

  • BANKUP [#821]; iphathiswa kuphela izinkantolo zemali kahulumeni. Lezinkantolo zisiza abantu ngabanye namabhizinisi ukuba bahlele kabusha noma bakhulule izikweletu ngaphansi kweBankrupcy Code.
  • .paent nophawu ̵ Inkantolo yokudlulisa izikhalo yase-U.S. yezwa zonke izikhalo zemvume. Amacala anzima avame ukuhilela izindaba zesayensi nezezobuchwepheshe eziyinkimbinkimbi.
  • [ Tax ̵ Inkantolo yentela yase-U.S. isingatha izimpikiswano phakathi kwabakhokhi bentela neNkonzo ye-International Revolution ngaphambi kokuba intela ikhokhelwe.
  • I-Moritary ̵ I-Uniform Code of Military Justice imisa izinkantolo-imvume zamalungu enkonzo, ngokunxusa eNkantolo yokudlulisa izigwegwe yamaButho ase-U.S.
  • Juvenile nomkhaya [ ... #821; izinkantolo zikaHulumeni zinezigaba ezikhethekile ezihlukanisa ubuhlongandlebe bentsha, ukuvikela izingane, nezindaba zomkhaya njengesahlukaniso nokutholwa.

Ukuqonda ukuthi yiluphi uhlobo lwecala olubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna usizo olungokomthetho noma ukuvikela icala.

Indlela Yokubhekana Nesimo Ngesimiso

Ukuze sibonise indlela imisebenzi yezinkantolo ezihlukahlukene esebenza ngayo ndawonye, cabangela isimo esivamile. Inkampani imangalelwa ngokuphulwa kwesivumelwano enkantolo yesifunda kahulumeni ngoba amaqembu avela ezindaweni ezihlukene futhi imali ingaphezu kuka - R55 000. Inkantolo yesigodi iqulisa icala. Ijaji lithola ukuthi inkampani yaphula isivumelwano futhi yakhipha amaholo angu - R550 000.

Inkampani idlulisa izikhalo eNkantolo Yezingcingo yase-U.S. kuleyosifunda, iphikisa ngokuthi ijaji lenkantolo lanikeza iziyalezo ezingafanele. Inkantolo yekomiti ibukeza impikiswano engokomthetho, ayitholi phutha, futhi iyaqinisekisa. Khona - ke lenkampani icela iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ukuba icele imvume ye-ceretiorari. Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme inikeza ukubukeza, izolalela izimpikiswano ngomlomo futhi ikhiphe isinqumo sokugcina. Uma iNkantolo iphika ukubukeza (okuvamile), isinqumo senkantolo ye-Aprellate siyama.

Uma icala lihilela umthetho kahulumeni kuphela (ngokwesibonelo, ukuphikisana ngesivumelwano sefa lezindawo phakathi kwezakhamuzi ezimbili ezisesifundeni esisodwa), kungaqala enkantolo yecala likahulumeni, khona - ke uye enkantolo yezikhulu zikahulumeni (uma ikhona), futhi ekugcineni enkantolo ephakeme kahulumeni. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngeke zihileleke ngaphandle kokuba kuvele impikiswano kahulumeni, njengenselele engokomthetho.

Lendlela ibonisa [[QT:0] i-examplication umsebenzi wenkantolo: izinkantolo zithola amaqiniso futhi zisebenzise umthetho; izinkantolo ezithatha iziphakamiso zilungisa amaphutha; izinkantolo ezinkulu zinikeza ukugcinwa nokufana.

Okwenza Ukuqonda Inkantolo Kudinge Indaba

Ukuqonda imisebenzi yezinkantolo ezihlukahlukene kunenzuzo ewusizo, efundisayo nengokwembubhiso.

Izinzuzo Zemfundo

Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukufunda ngesimiso senkantolo kuthuthukisa amakhono abucayi okucabanga. Abafundi bahlaziya amacala angempela asenkantolo, baxoxe ngezizathu ezicatshangelwe ezinqumweni zokwahlulela, futhi bahlole ithonya lezandulela zomthetho. Lokhu kujulisa ukuqonda indlela umthetho olungisa ngayo umphakathi. Imivubukulo enjenge Cornell Legil Information Institute[ kanye ] no-[FLT]OYEZ[] inikeza izinto ezifanele ukugcinwa kwecala kanye nokuqoshwa kwemidaba kwemiciso yeNkanto.

Ukuhlanganyela Kwesivumelwano

Uma izakhamuzi zazi ukuthi iyiphi inkantolo esingatha impikiswano ethile, zingasebenzisa kangcono izindaba zazo ezingokomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu ofuna ukubhala iziphakamiso ezincane kufanele aye enkantolo yendawo evumayo, hhayi enkantolo yesifunda. Ukuqonda imisebenzi yenkantolo kukhuthaza ukuvota okunolwazi ngokhetho lokwahlulela kanye nezinyathelo zomthetho ezihlobene nesimiso sobulungisa. Umphakathi onolwazi uthambekele kakhulu ekuhlonipheni izinqumo zenkantolo futhi uhlanganyele ekuphileni komphakathi.

Izisebenziso ezisebenzayo

Kunoma ubani ongase ahileleke ekumangalelweni kwecala i̵ njengommangalelwa, ufakazi, noma umbusi wejar ̬ ukwazi izindima zokwahlulela nezinkantolo ezithatha isigwebo kunciphisa ukudideka nokukhathazeka. Kuqokomisa futhi ukubaluleka kokumelelwa okungokomthetho. Isibonelo, ukudlulisa icala akukona ukuhlasela okwesibili, akubhekiseli emaphutheni angokomthetho, hhayi ebufakazini obusha. Ukuqonda lokhu kungasiza abameleli ukuba banqume ukuthi badlulise yini.

Isiphetho

Isimiso somthetho sase-U.S. siyisimo esiyinkimbinkimbi kodwa esivumelanayo lapho inkantolo ngayinye inenjongo ehlukile. Izinkantolo zesifundazwe nezikahulumeni zikhona, zisingatha izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zamacala asekelwe ebuthweni. Izinkantolo zenkantolo zinquma amaqiniso, izinkantolo ezihlola amaphutha, futhi izinkantolo eziphakeme zimisa izimpawu eziqinile. Ngokuqonda lemisebenzi, abafundi, abafundisi, nezakhamuzi bazuza umbono ocacile wendlela ubulungisa obusetshenziswa ngayo emphakathini wentando yeningi. Ukubusa komthetho akuxhomekile ezinkantolo ngokwazo kuphela kodwa nakubantu abaqonda futhi abahlonipha indima yabo. Izeluleko, i-'inkantolo yeze-PFLT'U. . Izinkantolo ezisemthethweni. [FLT]] zinikeza izincazelo ezicacile zenkantolo ngayinye negunyazalo lwalo lwalolwazi, noma yisiphi isimiso somthetho esivikela amalungelo, futhi isivikelo, imibandela, i-buthena.