Umqondo wokugonyelwa kwesimiso sobukhosi usuka emlandweni ongokomthetho, owaqala embonweni wokuthi umbuso ozimele awunakumangalelwa ezinkantolo zawo ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Lesimiso siye sathonya indlela izizwe ezisebenzelana ngayo ngokomthetho nangokwezinhlalo phakathi namakhulu amaningi eminyaka. Kusukela enkathini ephakathi yezimfundiso zamandla aphelele ombuso kuya ezimisweni zanamuhla ezilinganisela isithunzi sombuso ngamunye kanye nokuziphendulela komuntu ngamunye, ukuvikela kobukhosi kuhlala kuyingxenye yomthetho womphakathi oyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu nophikiswayo wezizwe zonke. Lesi sihloko sibonisa umsuka ongokomlando wokuzivikela kobukhosi, ukuziphendukela kwazo ngomthetho owodwa nemihlangano yezizwe, futhi umehluko wamanje olinganisela ukuphakama kwayo.

Umsuka Wamandla Obukhosi

Umsuka wokuzivikela kombuso ubuyela emuva emqondweni wenkathi ephakathi wokuthi amakhosi nababusi babengaphezulu komthetho. ENgilandi, le mfundiso yaqanjwa ngenkulumo -rex engeyombithi, esho ukuthi "inkosi ayenze okungalungile" lomqondo wawusho ukuthi inkosi yayigonyelwe emacaleni, hhayi ngoba inkosi yayingenaphutha ngokomuntu siqu, kodwa ngenxa yokuthi umthetho wawungamphoqeleli umbusi ukuba aphendule ezinkantolo zakhe siqu. Unqandelwa ekuhlolweni kwamandla ebukhosini nasebusweni kwenkosini.

I-English Doctrine: [[QULT: 0]Rex Non Potic Peccare

Umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi wasungula ukugonyelwa kobukhosi ngokuxubana kwamasiko namagunya obukhosi. Enkathini ephakathi, inkosi yayiwumthombo wobulungisa; kwakubhekwa njengokungenangqondo ukuthi inkosi yayingabizwa phambi kwenkantolo eyayangamele kuyo. Izindaba zakudala ezinjenge iProbibibitions del Roy [ [16] [16] Protes [16] Projects] del Roy] [16] [16] [16]] futhi [FLT] i-Cases of Proclations [FT] [165]) [1611] yaqinisa isimiso sokuthi inkosi ayinakungenyukiswe ezinkantolo zayo ngaphandle kwemvume. Inguquko ye-Roctive [1628] futhi kamuva ayizange isuse lokhu kuvinjelwe ngezindlela ezifana nezinqubo [FT:] yenqubo yesinqumo sokulunga, nakuba ivuma isicelo esithile, nakuba ivuma ukuba ivume.

Ngaphandle kweNgilandi, izimiso zomthetho zamazwekazi eYurophu zamukela futhi izibalo ezibusayo ngaphansi komthetho wamaRoma njenge conals sinibus solutus est (isikhulu asiboshelwanga imithetho). EFrance, imfundiso ye i-tunité de l’État isuka enkosini ephelele kaLouis XIV isuke emfunweni we-19thcentury umthetho wezolawulo owawuthatha imfanelo ehlukile yomthetho wangasese. Nokho, njengesikhathi sokucwenganyelelwa kweze-Cecle, izazi zefilosofi njengoJohn Loccesquie, ziqala ukutshala izinkodayo, izimfa zenguquko zamuva.

Ukwamukelwa KwaseMelika Kwakuqala NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye

Amakoloni aseMelika azuza umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi, kuhlanganise nesimiso sokuthi umbusi akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume. Ngemva kokuzimela. Ngemva, iZihloko Zokuhlanganisa zasala nezimo ezibanzi, kodwa ukuhlobanisa komthetho-sisekelo kwaphakamisa imibuzo esheshayo. IChosolm v. Georgia [1793] [iNkantolo], iU.S. iNkanto ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi iSiphakamiso III soMthetho-mthetho sivumele isakhamuzi sombuso wasodwa ukuba singene iGeorgia ngaphandle kwemvume kazwe. Lokhu kwabangela ukukhala phakathi kwabameleli bakahulumeni. Umphumela waba yisigebetho esishelwa yi-[FLT] [FLD [F:] [FT] [55], (95]), imvume yombuso wombuso owe-"umbuso "igosamele i-ommetumestricivent" noma i-ognomesmeststrivene, noma i-odvertivent

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye asizange sigunyaze insimbi ephelele; kunalokho, samisa umthetho-mthetho owenqabela ukuvinjelwa kwezakhamuzi ukuba zikwazi ukukulahla ngokwengxenye. INkantolo Ephakeme kamuva yandisa izinga layo emacaleni anjengaye Hans v. Louisiana [1890], iphethe ukuthi ukubuyiselwa kwemali kuvimbela futhi isigwebo sezakhamuzi zayo ngokwemithetho engokomthetho, ngisho noma umbhalo ungasho kanjalo ngokuqondile. Lokhu kwadala imfundiso eqinile, egunyazahlulele ukuzivikela kombuso okuqhubekayo eU.S.

Ukukhula EMthethweni Ovamile

Phakathi nekhulu le - 19 nasekuqaleni kwelama - 20, isimiso sokuzimela ngokuphelele ekubuseni sabusa kokubili eUnited Kingdom naseUnited States. Izinkantolo zenqaba ngokungaguquki ukujabulisa amasudi ngokumelene nababusi bakwamanye amazwe noma amazwe ngaphandle kwemvume ecacile.

Imfundiso Yokungahlangani Ngokuphelele

Kumthetho i-Srake Exchange v. M'Faddon (11812), uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wachaza isisekelo sokuzivikela kombuso kweminye imibuso engaphandle e-U.S.: ukuba khona kombusi wangaphandle e-U.S. indawo iyindaba yemvume, ayilungile. Marshall wabhala ukuthi umbuso wesizwe phakathi kwezwe laso ngokwezwe layo uzimele futhi uphelele, kodwa ungavuma ukuthatha imvume yalelozwe phezu kwezikhulu zangaphandle njengendaba ye-commone. Lendaba yamisa inkolelo yesimiso sokuzingalawuleka kwezentengiselwano yeze-[FLT] [FLT] [FF] [FT] izigwegwe zezezezezezezentengiselwane, lapho izigwebo zezezezezezezeze-Estern, i-F3] izinyuzi izinyuzi ezisetshenziswa khona izinyuko:[20]

Ikhono lokucabanga eliphelele lemfundiso lalilula: ukugcina umbuso wezwe elithile ulandisa ezinkantolo zesinye isizwe kungaphazamisa ukulingana nokuzimela kwababusi. Kodwa njengoba amabhizinisi azimele andayo (imigqa, izinkampani zikawoyela, izindiza ) izikhundla zomuntu siqu ezisebenzelana nalezinhlangano zizithola zingenakhambi lapho kuphakama izingxabano. Ukungabi nabulungisa kokuvumela uhulumeni ukuba ahwebe njengomthengisi bese ufihla ubukhosi bubhebhebhethekisa izimfuno zenguquko.

Ukushintsha Kwemfundiso Ebekela Imingcele

Ukushintshwa kwaqala ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka nezinqumo e-Italy naseBelgium, ezahlukanisa phakathi [ku- jurei (izenzo zokubusa) kanye nezingalo zokubusa] nezithiwa amagestion [[ (izenzo zezentengiselwano]). Ngaphansi kwemfundiso [[FLT:] 4] yesimiso sokuvikela imfutho [[[FLT] , kusho ukuthi ukwamukela ukuvikeleka kuphela izenzo zobuso bukhosi, hhayi ezemisebenzi yezentengiselwano. I-UMnyango wezentengiselwano engathi ayiwutholanga njalo [Umbuso wezwe] I-UFFFONT] [FU.[9] I-U.[194] I-E.[9] Isinqumo se-E.[i-E.NS.NS.N.[evisston `I.[9]

[[[FTL:0] umxhumanisi we-'FT': : [[FT:2] U.S.U.Mnyango woMahlulelo – uMbusi Wezwe Langaphandle I-Immunies Act complement[

ITate Letter yayingenawo amandla omthetho, kodwa yaqondisa izinkantolo zase-U.S. kwaze kwaba yilapho iziKhomishane zihlanganisa inkolelo evimbelayo eMthethweni woMbusi we- ka-1976 (FSITA). I-FSIA yamisa uhlelo olubanzi lokunquma ukuthi izifunda zakwamanye amazwe nezisetshenziswa zazo zingokuzivikela ezifanele ezinkantolo zase-U.S., futhi ihlala iyigunya eliyinhloko lemithetho lokuvikela ubukhosi bakwamanye amazwe eUnited States.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Emthethoni Wezizwe Zonke

Nakuba izimiso zomthetho zasekhaya zaqala ukumelana nokuvinjelwa, umthetho wezizwe zonke wazama ukuveza indinganiso ehlangene. I-International Law Commission (I-ILC) yaqala ukusebenza ngesihloko sango-1970, iphethe kuMhlangano weZizwe Ezihlangene we-Jurisdiction Immunitunies of United States and Theodomment [[FLL:1] [2004].

I - UN Convention on Juristianial Imental Immunitunity (2004)

I-UN Convention yathathwa yi-General Assembly ngo-2 December 2004 futhi yavulwa ukuba isayinwe ngo-17 January 2005. Yaqala ukusebenza ngo-10 September 2024, ngemva kokubekwa kwethuluzi lama-30 lokuhlobisa. I-Convention ihlanganisa indlela eqinile, inikeza ukuba uhulumeni ungakwazi ukumelana nemithetho ebangelwa ukuthengiselana kwezentengiselwano, izivumelwano zemisebenzi, ukulimala komuntu siqu noma ukulimala kwempahla, impahla, impahla yengqondo, noma izivumelwano zokuhlukanisa. Imisa futhi imithetho ye-"intengiselwano yezentengiselwano ebhandekile" nempatho kahulumeni. Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-2025, i-Unity Convention inezingles 31, kuhlanganise nezomnotho ezinkulu njengeJapan, i-Italy, neFrance. I-United States ne-United States ne-United States ayisayinisanganga i-'uni.

[ umxhumanisi we-External: UN Treaty - Jurisdiction Immunitional Immunitions of States[

Izindlela Zokuqhathanisa: UMthetho Wangaphakathi Uphikisana Nomthetho Ovamile

Amazwe aseYurophu, ikakhulukazi iJalimane ne-Italy, ayesethole imingcele evimbelayo esikhathini eside ngesinqumo sokwahlulela. iNkantolo ye-Federal Constitution, i-Empempey yase-Iran Case (1963), yakholelwa ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwemithetho eqinile yangaphandle akukwenzi ujure gessis [[FLT]] . i-Italy 'i-Corte di Cassione' ngokufanayo yasebenzisa inkolelo evimbelayo. EZweni lase-United, [[FLT:] i-Immatlet Act [197] I-Ict [FLT] inikeza isimo sokuvikela i-UKK ngaphandle kwezimo ezishiwo, kuhlanganise nezivumelwano zemisebenzi, i-UK, futhi i-U. i-Active Couragean isebenza phakathi kwe-Estation ye-Europe.

I-European Convention on State Immuny (1972) yayiwumzamo wangaphambili wokuvumelanisa imithetho yokuzivikela kwezwe eYurophu. Yaqala ukusebenza ngo-1976 futhi manje inezigaba ezingu-8 zezifunda. I-Convention ithatha indlela evimbelayo futhi ihlanganisa amalungiselelo amaningi emithetho ye-proceded system yenkonzo nokugcinwa kwezahlulelo. Nokho, yathathelwa indawo kakhulu yi-UN Convention ne-Protoconument of Europe Exprotocooctal eEuropean the State Immunity.

Intuthuko Yanamuhla Nezinto Ezihlukile

Namuhla, ukugonywa kwesimiso sokuzimela akuyona into ephelele. Izizwe eziningi ziyayiqaphela imingcele evumela amalungu azimele ukuba adlulise izikhundla noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezisezimweni ezithile.

Umsebenzi Wezentengiselwano Uyakhishwa

I-FSIA isho ukuthi umsebenzi obalulekile kakhulu uphathelene nemisebenzi yezentengiselwano. Ngaphansi kwakho kokubili i-FSIA ne-UN Convention, umbuso awugonyiwe lapho ufaka ibhizinisi lezentengiselwano. I-FSIA ichaza umsebenzi wezentengiselwano njengenkambo evamile yezentengiselwano noma ibhizinisi elithile. Umbuzo oyinhloko ukuthi isenzo sinye yini esiyimfihlo esingaba sesisibangele ukuba isigaba esizimele senze. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuthengwa kwezindiza zezindiza kuyintengiselwano, kuyilapho ukuthunjwa kwempahla kwamanye amazwe ngesikhathi sempi kuyinkosi. Izinkantolo zicabangela imvelo yalesi senzo, hhayi injongo yaso, ukunquma ukugonyelwa. Lokhu kuveza ukukhokhwana okukhulu kwezindawo ezinjengezikwele ye-oyile, izinkampani zika-oyiledi, ne-hulumeni.

Ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu kanye [[QULT: 0] Jous Cogens

Enye yezihlukaniso eziphikiswana kakhulu ihlanganisa ukwephulwa kwemithetho yomhlaba wonke esemthethweni engekho emthethweni ( jus cogens), njengokuhlukumeza, ukuqothulwa kohlanga, nobugqila. Umbuzo uwukuthi ingabe uhulumeni ungasho ukuthi uvikelekile ngezenzo eziphula amalungelo abantu ayisisekelo, ngisho noma lezozenzo zaziwubuso obuphezulu emvelweni. Al-Adtani v. United Kingdom[FFLT:3] (2001), iNkantolo yaseYurophu yamaLungelo elwela amalungelo abantu eyayikholelwa ukuthi i-UK's ukugobe igobe enkantolo yokuhlushwa kwecala ayizange iphambukiselwe eSiphakathini se-6 se-Ebulungu, ngenxa yenkululeko esemthethweni (i-Foctal: 1,1) futhi inkantolo yayaziwa ngokuba i-odvolunters (evention) ngenxa yemithetho yezizwe zezizwe zonke:[Fjun] [F4]]

Nokho, ezinye izinkantolo zesizwe ziye zathatha umbono ohlukile. Ferni v. Federal Republic of Germany (2004), iNkantolo yase-Italy yeSishayaniso yasekela ukuthi iJalimane ayinakukwazi ukuzimela ukuvikela ubugebengu bempi nokuphoqelelwa kwempi phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, ngoba lezenzo zaphula [[FLT:] izijus cogns [. Lokhu kwaholela e-INkantolo yempini [[FLT]] Jeuriqualiv I-Immunions I - I - jounit yezwelot yezwe lonke [[FLT] [FLD:5] ecaleni leNkathi yezizwe zonke (IC), ngo-2012].

[ umxhumanisi : ICJ – Jurisdictional Immunications of the State (Germany v. Italy)

Ukuvuma Nokuvuma

Umbuso ungasiphazamisa ngokuqondisisa noma ngokusikisela. I-FSIER yenzeka ngesivumelwano, isivumelwano, noma isimemezelo esingathathi hlangothi. I-applier ingavela lapho umbuso uzithoba ngokusemthethweni enkantolo ngokufaka imvume yokuzithethelela noma ngokuvuma ukunqanda ukunqanda isigwebo. Ngaphansi kwe-FSIA, ukuvinjelwa kwe-opasethiyo ngokuvumelana ne-orbitrate ebekwe i-arbut. I-waiver ithathwa njenge-scrective; i-ojectives enqanda ukuvikelwa kwenkantolo ngokungenayo ekubulaweni kwesahlulelo. Lokhu kungafani okuphakathi nokwenqanyulwa ekubulaweni kwentambo nokuvikelwa ekubulaweni. Ngisho noma isimo sombuso silahlekelwa ukuvinjelwa ekuncishisweni, impahla yayo ingaba incishiswe ngaphandle kokuba isetshenziswe ngokwezentengo, ngaphandle kwemisebenzi yezentengo.

Ubuphekula Buyahlukaniswa

E-United States, ngemva kokuhlasela okungu-9/11, uMkhandlu walungisa i-FSIA ngo-( u-Antitórism no-Death Penalty Act ka-1996 futhi kamuva I-Justice Against Against of Terrorism Act (JASTA) ka-2016. Lezi zinqumo zivumela ukulwa nemibuso yakwamanye amazwe emiswe njengezinhlangano zobuphekula ezenzwe ngezenzo zobuphekula, ukuhlupha, noma ukubulala okungaphezulu okwenzeka ngaphandle kwe-U. Ubuphekula buholele izahlulelo emazweni anjenge-Iran ne-AS, kodwa bulokhu buhlala zinzima ngenxa yeze-FIA ezindaweni ezithile ngaphandle kwemisebenzi yezentengo yezentengo esetshenziswayo yezentengo yezentengo yezentengo eUnited States.

Izimpikiswano Nezinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukuzimela kwesimiso sombuso sokuzibusa akuyona imfundiso engavamile; kuyaqhubeka kuguquka ngenxa yezindlela ezintsha zombuso, ukubusa kwembulunga yonke, nezindinganiso zamalungelo abantu.

Ukukhishwa Kwesikweletu EsinguMbusi

Ibhizinisi elishiywe ngokwezentengiselwano liye laba likhulu esikweletini sokuzimela. Uma izwe lihluleka ukubopha izibopho, ababambi bamasheya ngokuvamile bamangalela izinkantolo e-U.S. noma e-UK ngaphansi kwenkolelo-lwazi ethi ukubopha isibopho kuwumsebenzi wezentengiselwano. [[FL:0]] NML, Ltd. v. Republic of Argentina (2014, iNUS.S.C. ikhotha i-U.S. i-A. i-qualls ikhomba ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwezikhali ezivumelwano zayo zesibopho kubanzi ngokwanele ukuvusekuvunywe izinto zayo emhlabeni wonke. Icala eliholelwa kwamanye amazwe likhokha isikweli sezentengo. I-FSIA ifuna i-" nakuba, i-" ikhona inzuzo eUnited States, lapho kukhishwa izikweleti zezwe langaphandle.

Ukungena Kwezindawo Zokulwela Umbuso ← Ukungenela Kwezwe

Ukwanda kwamabhizinisi kahulumeni (SOE) kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi banelungelo yini lokugonywa kanye nombuso ngokwawo. IFSIA iphatha uSOES njenge "imisebenzi noma izinkonzo" zikazwe langaphandle, futhi ayivikelekile ngaphandle kokuba isebenza. Kodwa i-UN Convention ihlukanisa phakathi kwezwe nezinhlangano ezihlukene "ezizimele kumbuso futhi ezikwazi ukukhokhisa noma ukukhokhiswa." Ukuthambekela kuwukuphatha u-SOEs njengabantu abahlukene ngokwemithetho, okusho ukuthi bathola ukuvikeleka kuphela ngenxa yezenzo eziyenziwayo ekusebenziseni igunya lobukhosi. Lendawo ibucayi kakhulu ngezinhlangano zezizwe ezihlangene ezisebenza ngokulawula amafutha, igesi, noma izinkampani zezezezezemigodi.

Ukulandisa Kwezigebengu Emhlabeni Wonke

I-Rome Signmentte yeNkantolo ye-International Criminal Court (ICC) inikeza lelo gunya elingokomthetho njengenhloko kahulumeni noma uhulumeni alimkhululi umuntu emacaleni obugebengu. Lokhu kuphikisa ngokuqondile umqondo ongokwesiko wokuvikela abantu ekuqothulweni kohlanga, ubugebengu obumelene nesintu, noma ubugebengu bempi. Ukuboshwa kwe-ICC kwaMongameli waseSudanamarial alalal MalBasir noMongameli waseRussia kubonisa ukuthi ukulondoloza igciwane [[FLT: 0] umuntu owedwa [uc] [umthetho wezehlulele] [ikhulu], [izikhulu zesizwe] azibangemthetho ezihlala emhlabeni wonke]. Nokho, inkantolo zesizwe aziwahluli ukuthi zingammangalelana yini umholi wangaphandle kwezwe (2002] ngaphambi kokuba i-ICCC] isikhulu secala seze emacabini.

[[UMTH:0] Umxhumanisi we-External: [[FTLT:2] Cornell Institut yolwazi olusemthethweni – uMbusi I-Immunity

Isiphetho

Imfundiso yokuzimela ukuvikela kombuso iye yasuka emibonweni yangenkathi ephakathi yelungelo laphezulu nelobukhosi ekungabini naphutha kwesimiso somthetho esiyinkimbinkimbi okumelwe kulinganisele ukuhlonipha ubukhosi bombuso nemfuno yobulungisa, ukulandisa, nezentengiselwano zomhlaba wonke. Imfundiso ephelele yekhulu le 19 leminyaka yathathelwa indawo inkolelo evimbelayo enzima ngekhulu lama-20, futhi ikhulu lama-21 liyaqhubeka livivinya imingcele yaleyomingcele. I-UN Convention on Juriscistianication Imganion of State and the Wither, nakuba ingakamukeliwe yonke indawo, imelela ukuhlanganiswa okukhulu kokusondela kwemingcele. Kodwa imibuzo emikhulu isele: Ingabe kufanele ilahle imingcele yalelo hlelo [FLT:]? ukuphula umthetho wezentengo yezentengo yezentengo yanamuhla nokwezi, kanti imelela ukuvikelwa kwezentengo yezentengo yezizwe zonke izikhulu zezizwe zonke?

Njengoba izwe liqhubeka lihlanganiswa, le mfundiso izoqhubeka iguquka. Izazi nabezokwelapha kumelwe bahlale beqaphela ukuvumelana okungaguquguquki phakathi komthetho wesizwe, izivumelwano zezizwe, nomthetho wezizwe wesiko. Isiphetho sokuvikela kobukhosi sisekuhlobana okuqhubekayo phakathi kobukhosi bemibuso nobukhosi babantu abafuna ukuba baphumelele futhi balinganiswe.

[[[FULT:0] umxhumanisi we-External: Enclopædia Britannica – Phezukonke I-Immuniy