Table of Contents
Ukuhlukana Kwemibuso: Igunya Likahulumeni eUnited States
Isimiso sikahulumeni waseMelika sisekelwe ekwahlukaneni okuhlelwe kahle kwemibuso phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe (wezwe) nohulumeni abaphethe isifundazwe ngabanye. Le zakhiwo, eyaziwa ngokuthi i-constationalism, ziklanyelwe ukuvimbela noma yiliphi izinga lokuqoqa igunya elingaphezu kwekhono kuyilapho zivumela ubunye besizwe nokusabela kwendawo. Ukuqonda indlela la mandla anikezwa ngayo, asetshenziswa, futhi ancintiswane ngezinye izikhathi kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela enziwa ngayo imithetho, imithetho iyamiswa, futhi izakhamuzi zibuswa emagunyeni esikoleni endawo zibuswe ezindaweni zomphakathi ukuya emahholo eSishayamthetho.
I-Federalism ayiyona imfundiso eguquguqukayo; isuka ekuchazeni umthetho-mthetho, ezenzweni zomthetho-mthetho, iziyalezo zokuqondisa, nokuhlola kokwahlulela. Ukulinganisela phakathi kwegunya lombuso nombuso kuye kwashintsha ngokuphawulekayo emlandweni waseMelika, kusukela ekugcizelelweni kwerepublic yokuqala kwamalungelo ezwe kuya ekugcizelelweni kwendima enkulu kakhulu kahulumeni ngemva kwe-New Deal kanye nokuvuselelwa kabusha kwenqubo ye-odrogen. Lesihloko sihlola izisekelo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, izindima ezihlukene zesigaba ngasinye, ukuphikisana okunamandla okuphakamayo, kanye nempikiswano yamanje ethinta ikusasa le-Americannucityism.
Izisekelo ZobuFederali Emthethweni - sisekelo WaseU.S.
UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. wasungula isimiso sokubusa sombili, unikeza uhulumeni wombuso amandla athile ahlelwayo kuyilapho ugcina wonke amanye amagunya kahulumeni ezifundazweni noma kubantu. Abahleli be-flamers, bebone ubuthakathaka beZiphakamiso Zokuhlanganisa, bafuna uhulumeni wesizwe onamandla kakhulu kodwa wahlala eqaphile ngobushiqela obuqinile. Ukuhlehla kombuso obehlukana ngendlela evumela kokubili isizwe esinobunye nomzamo wombuso ohlukene.
ISichibiyelo Seshumi Namandla Agciniwe
ISichibiyelo seshumi, esagunyazwa ngo-1792, simemezela ngokucacile: "Imibuso engaphathiswa i-United States nguMthetho-sisekelo, noma enqatshelwe yiwo e-United States, igcinelwa i-United States ngokulandelana, noma abantu." Lokhu kulungiswa kusebenza njengetshe eliwumthetho-mthetho elilawulayo lombuso. Kusho ukuthi ngaphandle kokuba uMthetho-sisekelo unika uhulumeni wezwe amandla, noma uwenqabela amazwe ukuthi amandla angawo. Ngokomlando, lokhu kuye kwavumela amazwe ukuba alawule ezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano, asungule uhulumeni bendawo, alawule impilo yomphakathi nezokuphepha (igunya lezemfundo), futhi awengamele imfundo, phakathi kweminye imisebenzi eminingi.
UClaus Onedumela Elibi Nokukhululwa
Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi sivikela amagunya ezwe, iSupremacy Claus eSiphakamisweni VI iqinisekisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo, imithetho kahulumeni enziwa i-practus kuwo, futhi izivumelwano ziyi "Umthetho wezwe owe-"umthetho weSigqizo seSizwe". Lokhu kusho ukuthi uma umthetho kahulumeni uphikisana nomthetho osemthethweni kahulumeni osemthethweni, umthetho kahulumeni uyaphumelela. Lesi simiso, esibizwa ngokuthi ukukhulula okusemthethweni, siyithuluzi elibucayi lokugcina ubunye besizwe ezindaweni ezinjengezokufuduka, ezentengiselwano zamazwe, nezomphakathi. Nokho, izinga le-preditiontiontion ivame ukuphikisana, ikakhulukazi uma iminyango ye-Congresssss ezindaweni ezihlangene nemisebenzi yesizwe.
Ibhizinisi LikaClaus Nokukhula Kwamandla Kahulumeni
I-Choomer Claus eSiphakamisweni I, iSiqendu 8 sinikeza uKhomishane amandla "ukulawula intengo nezizwe zangaphandle, naphakathi kwamaZwe amaningana, naphakathi kwe-Indiyan Covoltion. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ukuchazwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme yale-reyinsi ibe yinjini eyinhloko yokwandisa igunya lezwe. futhi [FFF] [FFF:] [12] futhi ishiye [FFFFF] [5] [FFF:].[10][10][10] Imingcele yezentekonti] [[FFFFF:] [12].[5] [ix] [ixFFFF], inguhlulovdk [[5] [2] [ihlu] [ihlu] [ihlu] [ihlu] [ikhulu] [ikhulu] [ikhulu] [ikhulu]
Izindima Ezihlukile Zohulumeni Bombuso
Ohulumeni bombuso bakude kakhulu nokwehlukana okungaphansi kokubusa; bayizinhlangano ezizimele ezinegunya elikhulu ekuphileni kwansuku zonke kwezakhamuzi zabo. Amandla azo, ngokuvamile abizwa ngokuthi "amandla ezwe," ahlanganisa ikhono lokumisa imvume yempilo, ukulondeka, ukuziphatha, nenhlalakahle yabantu. Ngoba amazwe aseduze kakhulu nabantu, angavumelanisa izimiso zezindawo, izindinganiso, nezidingo zendawo.
Imfundo Nezifundo
Imfundo ngokuyinhloko ingumthwalo wemfanelo wezwe nezwe. Isifunda ngasinye simisa izindinganiso zaso siqu zezifundo, isiqinisekiso sothisha, izinqubo zokuxhasa isikole, nezimfuneko zokuhlola. Nakuba uhulumeni unikeza ukusekela kwemali okunezelwe (isib., ngokusebenzisa iSihloko I kanye ne-Areference Education Act) futhi sibeka izimfuneko ezithile zokulandisa, asikuqondisi lokho okuqukethwe yimfundo. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuhlukahlukani okukhulu: Amanye amazwe aye athatha izilinganiso eziqinile ezilawulayo, kuyilapho amanye egcizelela ukulawulwa nokuvumelana nezimo zendawo. Inkulumo emayelana nomthetho wesizwe, ikakhulukazi ngomlando, isayensi, nemfundo yobulili.
Ukunakekelwa Kwempilo Nempilo Yomphakathi
I-Asmedia inendima enkulu ekunikezeni i-covid comment. Igunya lomthetho lomthetho wokwelapha, ilawula izimakethe zomshuwalense (ngokuvamile ziqondiswa uhulumeni ngaphansi komthetho we-Affordal Care Act), iphethe izinhlelo ze-Medicaid, futhi iphethe iminyango yezempilo yomphakathi. Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID-19, izifundazwe zahola ekubekeni iziyalezo zokufihla isikhumba, ukuvala kwezezohwebo, ukuthunyelwa komshuwalenseko, nokuphatha isibhedlela. Lokhu kusebenza okucubukhali kwabonisa kokubili izinzuzo zomzamo we-magemdlana kanye nezinselele zomphakathi phakathi kwempi yesizwe. Ezinye izifunda, njenge-California kanye ne-New York, zathatha izinyathelo ezinonyanonya, kuyilapho ezinye i-Florida ne-Texad zomnotho kanye nokhetho lomuntu siqu.
Izinto Zokuhamba Nezakhiwo Eziyinkimbinkimbi
Iminyango yezokuthutha yoMbuso inomthwalo wemfanelo wokulondoloza nokwakha ingxenye enkulu yemigwaqo yezwe, amabhuloho, nezimiso zokuthutha zomphakathi. Ithola izimali zikahulumeni ngezinhlelo ezinjenge-Highway Trust Fund, kodwa inquma imisebenzi ethile, izinto eziza kuqala, nezimiso zokulungisa. Amazwe futhi ayakwazi ukuphatha ukubhalisa abashayeli, ukubhalisa izimoto, nokugunyaza izimoto. Uhulumeni ubeka imingcele ethile yokuphepha (umz., ijubane eliphoqelelwe ngemishini yokuxhasa izimali) kodwa uphawula ukuthi imoto isebenza ngendlela ephawulekayo.
Ukwahlulela Kobugebengu Nezenzo Zobuphostoli
Umthetho wesigebengu cishe uyingxenye yombuso ngokuphelele. Umbuso uqunga ubugebengu obuningi obubodwa, ukweba, ukuhlasela, amacala ezidakamizwa, − abekwa ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izishayamthetho zichaza amacala obugebengu nezijeziso; uhulumeni namaphoyisa endawo agcizelela; futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziwavimbela. Uhulumeni umangalela kuphela amacala adlulela emagcekeni ezwe noma awenziwe ezindaweni zikahulumeni (umz., ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa ngezidakamizwa, ukuphanga amabhange, ubuphekula). Lesimiso esihloniphekile sisho ukuthi imithetho yezomthetho yezephulamthetho iyahluka kakhulu: abanye bathi iyakuqeda isigwebo, abanye bayasigcina; abanye basusa isigwebo esinezekelele esingekho emthethweni, abanye balandela imigwebo eqinile.
Indima Yamandla Asebuthweni Lesizwe Ekubuseni Kwesizwe
Uhulumeni kahulumeni uphethe amagunya abalulekile ekusingatheni izindaba eziqeda imingcele yezwe noma ezidinga ukusondela okunobunye kwesizwe. Lamandla adwetshwe ngokuqondile asohlwini lweSiphakamiso I, Isiqephu 8, futhi aye anwetshwa ngencazelo yomthetho - sisekelo nangezindlela ezidingekile nezifanele zokusetshenziswa kwemigqa.
Ezentengiselwano Zamazwe Ngamazwe
I-Commerce Clause inikeza i-Congress igunya eliyinhloko emsebenzini wezomnotho odlula izintambo zikahulumeni. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukulawulwa kwezimakethe zokungawafaki amafashoni, iziteshi, imishini yokuxhumana ngemishini, nemisebenzi eminingi yezentengiselwano ethinta izomnotho. Uhulumeni wezwe uphinde uzwane futhi ugunyaze izivumelwano zezohwebo zamazwe onke, umise izimemezelo, futhi ulawule ukuthengwa nokuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Federal Trade Commission ye-operation iqondisa ukunqanda ukugcinwa kwe-mthetho, kuyilapho i-Securenties ne-Exchange Commission ilawula izimakethengiso.
Izindaba Zokuzivikela Zezwe Nezakwamanye Amazwe
Uhulumeni unegunya elikhethekile kwezempi, ezimisweni zangaphandle, nasezivumelwano. UKhongolo lumemezela impi, izimali amabutho ahlomile, futhi lulawula ibutho lezempi; uMongameli usebenza njengoMphathi-iChief. Amazwe awakwazi ukugcina amabutho awo (ngaphandle kwe-National Guard, engahlelwa) noma angene ezivumelwaneni namazwe angaphandle. Lokhu kuqinisekisa inkambiso eyodwa ehlangene yamazwe angaphandle kanye nethuluzi lokuvikela elihlangene.
Ukufuduka Nokuzivuselela Kwemvelo
Umthetho woku-informationation uyindawo kahulumeni kuphela. Umthetho woMthetho-sisekelo unikeza iKhomishane amandla "okwakha uMthetho Ofanayo Wemvelo." Izinhlangano ze-Federal njenge-Immigration and Customment (ICE), Customs and Bournet Protection (CBP), ne-U.S. Communitigation Servicession kunye ne-Immigration Services (USCIS) ezizama ukuphoqa imigaqo ehlobene nokufuduka (umz. SB 1070), izinkantolo ziye zahlala zizama ukuvimbela imithetho engokomthetho elawula ukufuduka ngokuqondile, zikhomba ukuqulwa kwezwe.
Ukukhokha Intela Nokusebenzisa Imali
Uhulumeni uqoqa intela yeholo, intela yenkampani, intela ekhokhayo, nokukhokha intela eqoqwe ukuze kuxhaswe izinhlelo zawo. Ngokusebenzisa kwayo amandla, uMkhandlu ungathonya ukuziphatha kukahulumeni ngokuhlanganisa izimo zemali zikahulumeni . umkhuba owaziwa ngokuthi "umbuso wobuzwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni ufuna ukumisa imibuso yokuphakamisa iminyaka elinganiselwe yokuphuza ibe yiminyaka engu-21 njengemfanelo yokwamukela izimali zasemgwaqweni. Nakuba iNkakhulu ilinganisela ukulinganiselwa kwezimo ezinjalo (bona [FLT]][FLT]]NFIB v. Seliusus [20]] 2016 [FLT]], ukuchitha izimali kusengwa kwendlela ekhethekile ye-moduradium.
Ukuhilizisana Nokuxabana Phakathi KoMbuso Namazwe Asempini
Imingcele ephakathi kwegunya lombuso nohulumeni ayicacile ngaso sonke isikhathi, iholela ezimpikiswaneni ezingokomthetho nasezingxabanweni zezombangazwe. Le midlalo iyisici, hhayi igciwane, sobuzwe, `ivumela womabili amazinga kahulumeni ukuba axoxisane, alungise, futhi abuye abuye ashintshe. Nokho, ibangela futhi ukungezwani okuphikelelayo.
Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho
Mhlawumbe isibonelo esivelele kakhulu samanje yimpi ye-cannabis. Kusukela ngo-2025, izifunda-mazwe ezingu-24 ziye zagunyaza imfiva yokuzijabulisa, futhi eziningi zinezinqubo zezokwelapha, kodwa iSejior I isalawula inqubo ngaphansi kwe-Programmed Substancess Act (CSA). Uhulumeni wezwekazi wayesebenzise kakhulu i-authonce-eyeza izandla phakathi ne-Obama ne Biden abaphathi be-Bhonda ngokuqondisa (umz., i-Cole Memorandum), kodwa i-Atreme General Jeffy Comssions Reviset, yenza ukuba kungabi naleyo siqondiso. Izenzo ezifana ne-SAFEbaning Act no-Ult Act zizimisele ukuhlanganisa isimo somthetho nomthetho wezwelo lonke. Le mpi ihluleka i-mthetho i-mthetho iyaqhubeka lapho i-mthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho onobutha.
Ukunakekela Impilo Nomthetho Wokunakekela Ongadunyiswa
I-Affordble Care Act ka-2010 yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuhileleka kukahulumeni ekunakekeleni impilo ngomthetho womuntu ngamunye nangomqashi, ngemithetho yezentengiselwano, nangemithetho yezentengiselwano, nange-Medicaid. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ingxenye enkulu ye-ACA NFIB v. Sebelius, yenza iMedicaid yanwetshwa ngokwekhethelo ngezifundazwe. Lokhu kwadala isimiso esinemigoqo esinezelwe ngokwezingatshazwayo, isho ukuthi uMidid wabona ukwehla okuphawulekayo emazingeni angakholeki, kuyilapho okungewona ama-pasenti eshiye izigidi ngaphandle kwenkombazwe. Ukudoba kwempi e-ASAKA, kuhlanganise nezinselele zemisebenzi e-onqandayo, kuhlanganise nokuvimbela ukuhlanganiswa kwemizwana kwe-mbubhiyo ye-ombubhiyo.
Ukubuyiselwa Kwendawo Ezungezile
Isimiso sokusisebenzela siyindawo ezungezile esemthethweni yempi ye-localism. I-Cease Air Act and Clean Water Act imisa izindinganiso zikahulumeni kodwa ngokuvamile iphathisa ukumiswa kokusetshenziswa kwemithetho ye-computerism (umz., ukuhlelwa kokusetshenziswa kwezindawo). Eminyakeni yamuva nje, ezinye izigodlo (ngokulindelekile iCalifornia) ziye zasebenzisa igunya lokubeka izindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha intuthu yemoto ngaphansi kwe-Ceac Air wactiver [1] amandla ukuphathwa kwe-Trump okuvuse-ka, kodwa umphathi we Biden ubuyiselwe. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sa 202222 [kuyi- [[FLT] [ist Virginia v.[FLT] [FLT] [3] Amandla e-EPA anciphisa amandla okufudula amagesi ahlanzekile ngaphansi kwe-Airmoumpele, i-Act, i-Active e-odculment, e-sment, e-sc
Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Nokulinganisela Okushintshashintshayo
Ijaji, ikakhulukazi iNkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States, lisebenza njengomsekeli wokugcina wezingxabano zikahulumeni.
Izici Eziwuphawu
- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)[FLT: INkantolo, ngaphansi kukaMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall, yamisa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe unawo amandla asikiselayo ngaphezu kwalawo ahlelwe ngokucacile, futhi lowo mbuso awunakukho ukukhokha intela yezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Lesisinqumo saqinisa igunya likahulumeni futhi saqinisekisa ukuphakama komthetho wesizwe.
- Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)[FLT: INkantolo ichazwa kabanzi kwezohwebo zamazwe, inikeza iKhongolo amandla okulawula imikhumbi nezimoto zasemfuleni. Lokhu kwabeka isisekelo sencazelo yanamuhla enkulu yezentengiselwano zika Claus.
- United States v. Lopez (1995)[FLT:]: Ngokushintshwa okukhulu, iNkantolo yabulala umthetho kahulumeni ovimbela izibhamu eduze nezikole, inquma ukuthi lomsebenzi awuwuthintenga kakhulu uhwebo lwezifundazwe. Lokhu kwakungokokuqala eminyakeni ecishe ibe ngu-60 iNkantolo ibeke imingcele enenjongo emandleni entengiselwano, ibonakalisa ukubuya kobukhosi bukahulumeni ezindaweni ezithile.
- Printz v. United States (1997): INkantolo yalulaza amalungiselelo eBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Act eyayifuna ukugcinwa kwemithetho yombuso nomthetho wendawo ukuba baqhube i-sekisi, bephethe ukuthi uhulumeni kazwelonke akanakuyala izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba ziqondise izinhlelo zikahulumeni.
- NFIB v. Sebelius (202)]: INkantolo yasekela igunya lomuntu ngamunye le-ACA njengentela, kodwa yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni ngeke aphoqelele ukuba andise iMedicaid ngokusongela ngokugodla imali ekhona yeMedicaid (isivikelo esiyinhloko se-medicaid) ye-sobustry.
Lamacala abonisa ukuthi ukwakheka kweNkantolo Ephakeme nezenzakalo ezilandelanayo kusithinta kakhulu isimo sikahulumeni, ngezinye izikhathi kuqinisa amandla kahulumeni, ngezinye izikhathi kunikeza amalungelo kahulumeni.
Izinkinga Zamanje Nezinselele Eziqhubekayo
Izimpikiswano eziningana eziqhubekayo ziveza ukushuba kwemizwa okubangelwa uhulumeni waseMelika.
Ukuqamba Amalungelo Nokuphathwa Kokhetho
Izimo Eziphuthumayo Zempilo Yomphakathi
Isifo se-COVOID-19 sadalula kokubili amandla nobuthakathaka bempilo yomphakathi ehloniphekile. I-odola yayinomthwalo wemfanelo oyinhloko wokuhlola, ukulandelela, ukuvala izifihla - buso, ukuvala amabhizinisi, nokugoma. Lokhu kwaholela ezindleleni ezihlukene kakhulu: ezinye izifundazwe zagcina izigunyazo eziqinile nezigunyaza ukuvala imingcele zibekwe ku-2021, kuyilapho ezinye zisusa imingcele ngokushesha. Uhulumeni wanikeza ukusekela izimali, isiqondiso, futhi ekugcineni izijovo, kodwa wazama ukuhlanganisa ukusabela kwesizwe. Izikhulu zikahulumeni ziphikisa ukuthi ukuhlolwa okugunyazinzile kwenqubo yokufunda; abagxeki baphikisana nokudidelwa kokudideka, ngokusebenza, nangokufa okuvimbeleyo. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka ngendima engokomthetho ephethe amabhayisensi (C) futhi ihlanganisa nokugobeka igunya lesizwe sokulawula i-C).
Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nesenzo Esivela Kuhulumeni
Ngesenzo sikahulumeni sokushintsha isimo sezulu esiye sanqamuka noma sashintsha phakathi nezindawo ezithile zokuqondisa, izifundazwe ziye zangena esiphuzwini. Ngegunya lazo elikhethekile ngaphansi kwe-Ceake Air Act, ziye zamisa izindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha izimoto ezilandelwa ezinye izifundazwe. I-Regional Greenhouse Gastinitive (RGGI) phakathi kwezifunda zasenyakatho-mpumalanga ne-mpumalanga uhlelo lweCalifornia lumelela ukusebenza kwecarbon expression. Lezi zinyathelo zokwakha isimiso sesizwe sokukhipha izimoto njengezimboni nemishini ye-otive okumelwe ivumelane nemithetho eqinile kahulumeni yokwenza ibhizinisi enqamule imigobhini kahulumeni. Nokho, uhulumeni unegunya lokudlulisa amandla, amazwe ombuso, nezivumelwano zezizwe zomhlaba. Ukushukuma kwesimo esiphakathi kwezwe elihlangene ne-ose-omistrunt.
Isiphetho
Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso phakathi kweziphathimandla zikahulumeni nohulumeni akuyona indlela emisiwe yomthetho-sisekelo kodwa ilungiselelo lokuphila elizivumelanisa nomthetho, ukuchaza kokwahlulela, kanye nomkhuba wezombangazwe. Kusukela ezimpini zakuqala zokuchitha nokuncishiswa kwensangu kuya ekulweni kwanamuhla okungokomthetho, ukuvota, amalungelo, nokusabela okuwumshayabhuqe, ubuzwe buseyinkundla eyinhloko yempi yezombangazwe yaseMelika. Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundisi, abenzi bemithetho, nezakhamuzi ngokufanayo ngenxa yokuthi kuthinta yonke into kusukela ezikoleni zesikole zomphakathi kuya ekufinyeleleni kobuqotho bezeluleko lwezempilo kuhulumeni bokhetho.
Njengoba izwe libhekene nezinselele ezivelayo zenzakalela ukuhlelwa kokuhlakanipha, ukuhlelwa kokwaziswa, ukukhuluma nge-website, nokuzimela kwesimo sezulu, okungadingeki, kuhlala kunezikhawu. Abasekeli begunya likahulumeni bagcizelela ukuvumelana, ukuhlolwa, nokusabela ezimisweni zendawo. Abameli bamandla kahulumeni bagcizelela ukulingana, ukulingana, nokulingana, kanye nekhono lokusingatha izinkinga zezenzo zomphakathi. Akukho sinqumo esihlala njalo; ukuhlakanipha kwe-uhulumeni waseMelika kusekho ekhonweni lokusingatha kokubili izimo zomthetho-mthetho owodwa. Ngokwalabo abafuna ukuthonya noma uhulumeni, ikhono likhona ngokwazi ukuthi kuphi ukuhlanganisa ubukhosi bezwe, futhi nini ukudlulisa ukunxusa kwegunya lesizwe.
Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-Constitution Annoted’s sescapedition yeSichibiyelo seshumi , Encclopedia Britannica ekungeneni kwe-constitution[, noma umsebenzi wezemfundo kumthetho wezwe [[FLT:]