Table of Contents

INkantolo ePhakeme ye-United States imile njengendikimba ephakeme yesimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika, isebenzisa amandla angavamile ukuhlela imithetho yesizwe, ivikela amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, futhi ithonye inqubo yomphakathi. I-Princitututed eSiqendu III, Ingxenye 1 yoMthetho-sisekelo ngo-1789, iNkantolo Ephakeme manje ihlanganisa abahluleli abayisishiyagaxa abayisishiyakalisi bokugcina bezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezifinyelela izinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuhlola ukwahlulela. Ukuqonda indlela lenhlangano esebenza ngayo, indlela izahlulelo ezisebenza ngayo, nendlela yokulawula izinqumo zabo, kanye nemiphumela ejulile yemithetho yezwe enikeza ngayo ukuqonda okubalulekile eMthethweni wase-America ne-democradicial.

Iyini INkantolo Ephakeme Nesisekelo Sayo Somthetho - sisekelo?

INkantolo Ephakeme imelela igatsha lokwahlulela likahulumeni wase-United States, elisebenza njengenkantolo ephakeme kakhulu enkantolo kahulumeni. Igunya lokuqala elilawula izenzakalo ezimbalwa, njengesudusi phakathi kwezifundazwe ezimbili noma ngaphezulu, kanye nalezo ezihilela amanxusa, futhi inegunya lokunquma ngokuphelele kuzo zonke izinkantolo zezwe nezinkantolo zenkantolo ezihilela iqophelo lomthetho-mthetho-mthetho noma umthetho. Le mithetho ehlukene ivumela iNkantolo ukuba ilalele izindaba ezithile ngokuqondile kuyilapho futhi isebenza njengenkantolo yokugcina yezikhalo eziye zasebenza ngezinkantolo eziphansi.

Okwamanje, kunamajaji ayisishiyagalolunye eNkantolo, futhi ngaphambi kokuba athathe isikhundla, ukwahlulela ngakunye kumelwe kumiswe nguMongameli futhi kuqinisekiswe yiSigele, namajaji aphethe isikhundla phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, ngokuvamile ukuphila. Lokhu kumiswa kokuphila konke kuhloselwe ukuvikela amajaji ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi kuwavumele ukuba enze izinqumo ezisekelwe ezimisweni ezingokomthetho kunokucabangela okusemthethweni. Umthetho weNkanto engokomthetho awumiswanga ngaso sonke isikhathi emalungwini ayisishiyagalo nesishiyagamu senani esingu-9 se-Judicia ubeka amandla okunquma inani lokwahlulela ezandleni zeSishayamthetho, ngeSinyathelo sokuqala sika-1789, esimiswe ngenani elisukela sithupha esihlanu kuya phezulu eminyakeni eyishumi, kuze kube i-Judiciact of angu-99 ehlangene.

Igunya leNkantolo lidlulela ngalé kokunquma amacala alodwa. INkantolo inamandla okuhlola, ikhono lokwephula umthetho wokwephula ilungiselelo loMthetho-sisekelo noma isenzo sokuphatha ngenxa yokwephula umthetho, nakuba lingathatha isinyathelo esingaphakathi komongo wecala endaweni yomthetho egunyazwe yiyo. Leligunya lokuhlola kokwahlulela, nakuba lingashiwonga ngokuqondile eMthethweni, lamiswa ngesibonelo esingokomlando futhi lihlala lingenye yemisebenzi ebaluleke kakhulu yeNkantolo.

I - Power of Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison

Enye yemiqondo eyisisekelo kakhulu emthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika ukubukezwa kokwahlulela, “‘ igunya leNkantolo Ephakeme lokunquma ukuthi imithetho edluliswa yisiKhongolo noma izenzo ezithathwa yigatsha eliphethe zivumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Lamandla awanikezwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni kodwa amiswa ngelinye lamacala abaluleke kakhulu emlandweni wezomthetho waseMelika.

Ngesinqumo se-Marbury v. Madison, iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi uMkhandlu awunawo amandla okumisa imithetho edlula uMthetho-sisekelo, inikeza igatsha igunya lokunquma ukuthi izenzo zoMkhandlu zaziwumthetho-sisekelo noma cha, ngethonya leNkantolo lemithetho ethathwe kulesi sinqumo namandla okuhlola. Umbono weSikhulu uJohn Marshall kulelicala lika-1803 waguqula indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme, wamisa njengegatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo elinegunya lokuhlola imibuso yomabili amaBhunga noMongameli.

Isimiso esicaciswe ku-Marbury v. Madison sisemqoka emsebenzini weNkantolo namuhla. Njalo lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha umthetho njengongavumelani nemithetho noma isekela umthetho ophikisayo, iveza amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela asungulwe eminyakeni engaphezu kwamakhulu amabili edlule. Leligunya lenza iNkantolo ibe umlondolozi obalulekile wamalungelo omthetho-mthetho kanye ne-cheke kunoma ubani ongaba yisisulu sikahulumeni.

Indlela Amacala Afinyelela Ngayo ENkantolo Ephakeme

Eqinisweni, izicelo eziningi zokubukezwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme ziyaphikwa. Iningi lamacala iNkantolo Ephakeme ewakhiphayo adluliswa ezinkantolo eziphansi, futhi inqubo yokuthatha icala phambi kwamajaji ihilela izinqubo eziningana eziqondile.

Isicelo Se - dertiorari

Alikho ilungelo eliphelele lokuba iNkantolo ilalele isikhalo, futhi umuntu ofuna ukudlulisa isicelo eNkantolo kumelwe afake isicelo se-certiorari. Igama elithi "i-certiori" livela kwelesiLatini, elisho "ukutshelwa," futhi amele isicelo seNkantolo Ephakeme sokubukeza isinqumo senkantolo ephansi.

INkantolo ithola izicelo ezingaba ngu-7 000-8 000 zegama ngalinye le-certiorari, kodwa iNkantolo iyanika futhi ilalele impikiswano edluliselwe emacaleni angaba ngu 80. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izicelo ezingaphansi kwe-12% zamukelwa ukuze zibukezwe ngokugcwele. Amajaji akhetha kakhulu ukuthi yimaphi amacala akhetha ukuwalalela, agxila kulabo abanokubaluleka okukhulu kakhulu komthetho noma abaxazulula izingxabano phakathi kwezinkantolo eziphansi.

Ukubusa Kwezine

Isinqumo sokunikeza i-certiorari elungile asidingi inani elikhulu (*) kuphela kwabane bamajaji abayisishiyagalolunye okumelwe bavume ukunikeza i-certiorari. Lo "Umthetho ka-4" uqinisekisa ukuthi amajaji ambalwa angaletha amacala abalulekile phambi kweNkantolo egcwele ukuze ahlolwe, ngisho noma iningi lingase liqale lingangabaza.

INkantolo ingase inikeze imvume enkulu ye - certiorari uma izinkantolo eziphansi sezifinyelele izinqumo eziphikisanayo kulendaba, noma uma zibaluleke kabanzi.

Izinhlobo Zamacala Inkantolo Ewalalelayo

Nakuba amacala amaningi eNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu efika ngenqubo ye-certiorari, iNkantolo futhi inegunya lokuqala ezinhlotsheni ezithile zezingxabano. Amacala awela ngaphansi kwegunya lokuqala lenkantolo, ngaphandle kokuqulwa icala noma ukudluliswa kwecala enkantolo ephansi kuqala, futhi ngokwesiko ahlanganisa izinto ezinjengempikiswano phakathi kwezimo ezimbili noma ngaphezulu ezibhekene nemingcele noma amalungelo amanzi, noma phakathi kwezindawo nohulumeni.

Ukulawula kwesinqumo seNkantolo uWilliam Howard Taft, omzamo wakhe waholela ekudluleni koMthetho weJadicary ka-1975, owaqinisa inqubo ye-cert njengendlela eyinhloko yeNkantolo ePhakeme. Lokhu kuvumela iNkantolo ukuba igxile esikhathini esilinganiselwe nemithombo yayo yemibuzo ebaluleke kakhulu ebhekene nesizwe.

Inqubo Yesinqumo Senkantolo Ephakeme

Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme isivumile ukuzwa icala, ilandela inqubo ehlelwe kahle ehlanganisa ukubhalwa kafushane, izimpikiswano zomlomo, imihlangano yangasese, nokuhlelwa kwemibono. Ukuqonda isigaba ngasinye salenqubo kwembula indlela abantu abayisishiyagalolunye abanamafilosofi okwahlulela ahlukene abasebenza ngayo ndawonye ukuxazulula eminye yemibuzo enzima kakhulu engokomthetho yesizwe.

Izincwadi Ezimfushane Nezimpikiswano Ezingokomthetho

Uma amajaji enquma ukwamukela icala, icala libekwa esikhumulweni semikhumbi, futhi ngokwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, umceli unesikhathi esithile sokubhala imfishane, hhayi ukudlula amakhasi angu-50, abeke icala lakhe elingokomthetho ngokuphathelene nendaba iNkantolo eyayivumela ukuba ibukeze, futhi ngemva kwalokho umthathi-mphikisi unikezwa isikhathi esithile sokubhala i-etart, futhi angadluli amakhasi angu-50.

Lezizici ezimfushane zimelela izimpikiswano eziyinhloko ezinikezwa uhlangothi ngalunye eNkantolweni. Zikhomba izenzakalo ezihlobene, amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo, ulimi olungokomthetho, kanye nokucabangela okusekela ukuma kwabo. Izinga lalezizici ezifushanisiwe lingathonya ngokuphawulekayo indlela abahluleli abacabanga ngayo ngecala ngaphambi kokuba kuqale ngisho nangaphambi kokuba kuqalwe izimpikiswano ngomlomo.

Abantu noma amahlelo angekho ecaleni angafaka futhi iziphakamiso ezimfushane, ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-amicus curiae mifushane, noma ama-amicule nge-"anciae" okusho "umngane wenkantolo" ngesiLatini, futhi okungenani emfundisweni, injongo yalezi zikhawu iwukusiza izinhlangano ezithakazelayo ezithakazelayo, izazi ezingokomthetho, izinhlangano zikahulumeni, namaqembu aphezulu e-antiumcus ngezinye izikhathi anenani elikhulu kakhulu le-aicus mifishs @in Dobs, ngokwesibonelo, kwakunamafiji angaphezu kuka- 140. Le zinhlangano-mphindiwe-yo ezithane zivumela ukuba zivumelane imibono yazo efuna ukwazi ukuvumelana nemithetho yeNkanto.

Izimpikiswano Zemilomo Ngaphambi Kwenkantolo

Lapho iNkantolo ihleli, izinkulumo zomphakathi ziqala ngokushesha ngehora leshumi ekuseni, ngokuvamile abahluleli bezwa izimpikiswano ezimbili ezidluliselwa ngomlomo ekuseni, kuhlelwe izikhathi ezithile ngezikhathi zantambama, futhi ngokuvamile kuqhutshwa izinkulumo zomphakathi ngoMsombuluko, ngoLwesibili nangoLwesithathu.

Khona - ke abahluleli bafunda iziphakamiso zecala, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iphikisa ngokuphindwayo, lapho abameli nhlangothi zonke befuna ukuveza icala labo futhi abahluleli bebuza imibuzo, nalezimpikiswano zivame ukuthatha amahora amabili. Phakathi nezimpikiswano zomlomo, abameli bavame ukuphazamisa abameli ngemibuzo eqondile, izigcawu ezicatshangelweyo, nezinselele. Lokhu kunikeza ukuqonda ekucabangeni kobulungisa futhi kubavumele ukuba bavivinye amandla empikiswaneni ngayinye.

Izimpikiswano zomlomo zinezinjongo eziningi. Zivumela amajaji ukuba acacise amaphuzu abhalwe kafushane angecacile, ahlole imiphumela esebenzayo yemithetho ehlukahlukene engokomthetho, futhi anikeze izimpawu kubangane bawo ukuthi yiziphi izici zecala abazithola zibaluleke kakhulu. Kubameli, impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo isho ithuba elibalulekile lokuncenga iNkantolo, nakuba umphumela ngokuvamile uthonywa kakhulu yizimfuno ezibhaliwe nocwaningo lwangaphambili.

Ingqungquthela yamaJaji

Lapho kuphenywa izimpikiswano zomlomo, amajaji kumelwe anqume icala kulokho okwaziwa ngokuthi iNgqungquthela Yokwahlulela, futhi lapho iNkantolo ikhona, kuhlelwa izingqungquthela ezimbili ngesonto (81) ngesonto ntambama ngoLwesithathu nangenye ntambama ngoLwesihlanu ntambama. Le ngqungquthela iphakathi kwezici eziyimfihlo kakhulu zemisebenzi yeNkantolo Ephakeme.

Ngokwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, amajaji kuphela avunyelwa egumbini leNgqungquthela ngalesi sikhathi, “‘ akukho maphoyisa, omabhalane, onobhala, njll." futhi uMahluleli oMkhulu ubiza isimiso ukuba sihleleke futhi, njengesibonakaliso sobukhomanisi benhlangano, bonke abahluleli bayaxhawulana. Lomkhuba wokuxhawulana ngaphambi kwengqungquthela ugcizelela ukuthi naphezu kokungavumelani kwabo ezindabeni zomthetho, amajaji ayaqhubeka ehloniphana njengozakwabo.

Ngokwemithetho yenkantolo ePhakeme, bonke abahluleli banethuba lokuveza imibono yabo ngecala futhi baphakamise noma yimiphi imibuzo noma ukukhathazeka abangase babe nakho, uma ubulungisa bukhuluma ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa abanye, njengoba uMahluleli omkhulu esho amazwi okuqala, khona - ke ubulungisa obubodwa bukhuluma ngokuhleleka kobukhulu, bugcine ngokulunga okuncane kakhulu. Lengxoxo ehleliwe iqinisekisa ukuthi wonke amazahluleli ayazwakala futhi amajaji amakhulu awayilawuli ingxoxo.

Lapho izinkulumo seziphelile, uMahluleli oMkhulu uvota kuqala, futhi amaJaji ahlangene avota ngokuhlela kwehla kwesigaba esiphakeme, uma amavoti ebalwa, bese kukhethwa isahlulelo sokubhala umbono weNkantolo. Ijaji ngalinye linevoti eyodwa ekunqumeni amacala aqulwayo phambi kwenkantolo, futhi uma kuseningi, umahluleli omkhulu unquma ukuthi ubani obhala umbono wenkantolo; ngaphandle kwalokho, uma kunjalo, umahluleli omkhulu kunabo bonke owethulwa iningi unikeza umsebenzi.

Ukubhala Nemibono Ehlobene Nezinto

Uma umbono weningi usulungile, umbhali wezomthetho uyidlulisa enkantolo yonke, futhi ngalelo qophelo, noma yiliphi elinye icala linganquma "umbono", lingacela izinguquko embonweni ngaphambi kokujoyina, noma linganquma ukubhala umbono ohlukile. Le nqubo yokujikeleza ingaholela ekubukezeni okuphawulekayo njengoba umlobi esebenzela ukugcina izinhlangano eziningi.

Ngemva kokuba umbono weningi udlule, noma yikuphi ukungavumelani kuyosakazekela, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ubulungisa obuphikisayo bulindele ukufunda umbono weningi ngaphambi kokubhala, kodwa ngezinye izikhathi angase akulungele ukuthatha isinyathelo ngokushesha lapho ukuvuma kweningi umbono kuqhubekeka ngamathemba okuthonya abanye abahluleli ukuba bashintshe izingqondo zabo. Ezimweni ezingavamile, ukuphikisa okungavumelani nemibono kungaguqula lokho ekuqaleni okuphambene nombono weningi.

Kwezinye izimo, cishe abahluleli abaqapheliswe kakhulu bangabhala umbono ongavumelaniyo, bachaze ukuthi kungani bengavumelani neningi nokuthi kungani benganquma ngendlela ehlukile, futhi umahluleli oyedwa noma ngaphezulu angabhala umbono ovumelanayo, cishe bavumelana neningi ukuthi ubani okufanele anqobe icala, kodwa banikeze imicabango eyengeziwe ngokuthi bacabanga kanjani ngendaba yomthetho-sisekelo ecaleni. Lemibono ehlukene ingaba nethonya ekulungiseni izenzakalo zomthetho zesikhathi esizayo, njengoba namuhla ingaba umbono womphakathi kusasa.

Yini Eyenza Isinqumo “Uphawu Lwasezweni"?

Azikho zonke izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezinesilinganiso esilinganayo noma ukubaluleka. Nakuba iNkantolo inquma amacala amaningi ngalinye, ambalwa kuphela akhunjulwa njengenguquko ngempela. Izinqumo ze-lockcharal yilezo ezinquma ukuthi ngokuyisisekelo umthetho waseMelika owenziwe ngokungemthetho, useke izimiso ezintsha zomthetho-sisekelo, uvikele amalungelo ayisisekelo, noma ugumbuqele izenzakalo ezidala.

Izinqumo eziwuphawu ezingokomthetho zishintsha ukuchazwa komthetho okhona e - United States, futhi isinqumo esinjalo singase simise umthetho ngezindlela eziningi, kuhlanganise nokuhlukanisa isimiso esisha esicwengisisa isimiso esikhona, kanjalo sishiye umkhuba wangaphambili ngaphandle kokwephula umthetho wokugqolozela, noma simise ukuhlolwa noma indinganiso engenakulinganiswa engasetshenziswa izinkantolo ezinqumweni ezizayo.

Izici eziningana zinezela esinqumweni esithatha indawo ephawulekayo. Icala lingase lixazulule umbuzo obalulekile mayelana namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, njengenkululeko yokukhuluma, isivikelo esifanayo, noma inqubo efanele. Lingamisa uhlelo olusha olungokomthetho inkantolo ephansi ezolusebenzisa amashumi eminyaka ezayo. Noma lingase ligumbuqele isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme yangaphambili esasibhekwa kabanzi njengesingalungi noma esingqubuzana nezindinganiso zomthetho-sisekelo.

Icala eliphawula isango leNkantolo Ephakeme liye lathonya umlando futhi linethonya ezakhamuzini ezingemthetho namuhla. Lezi zinqumo zidlulela ngalé kwenkantolo, zithonya izinhlangano zezenhlalo, izimpikiswano zezombangazwe, nokuphila kwansuku zonke kwezigidi zamaMelika. Ukuqonda lamacala avelele kunikeza umongo obalulekile wokuqonda ukuthi umphakathi waseMelika uye wavela kanjani nokuthi izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo zisebenza kanjani ezinkingeni zanamuhla.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ngamalungelo Omphakathi Nokulingana

Ezinye zezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezilandela iNkantolo enkulu ziye zadingida imibuzo emayelana namalungelo omphakathi, ukulingana kwezinhlanga, nobandlululo. Lamacala aye asiza ekuchazeni ukuthi ukulingana kusho ukuthini ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo futhi aye abangela ushintsho olukhulu lwezenhlalo.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ingenye yamacala adumile nanethonya kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme emlandweni waseMelika, njengasesinqumweni esivumelanayo, iNkantolo yamemezela ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni ehlukanisa izikole zomphakathi zabafundi abaNsundu nabamhlophe yayingezona ezamalungelo omphakathi.

Isinqumo seBrown simenyezelwa njengesinqumo esiphawulekayo emlandweni weNkantolo Ephakeme, sigumbuqele i-Plesty v. Ferguson (1896) eyayidale imfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo". EPeby v. Ferguson v. (1996), iNkantolo Ephakeme yavuma ukukhishwa ngokusekela imfundiso ethi "ihlukene kodwa iyalingana," kodwa iNhlangano yesizwe yeNkathi Yentuthuko Yabantu Abaphiliziwe ayivumelani nalesinqumo, ibekela inselele ukuvalwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo we-konbon eTopeka, eKansas, isimiso sesikole, futhi ngo-19549, iNkanto eguqula isinqumo sayo sePelles, imemezela ukuthi "izikole eziphambili azifaniswe kakhulu".

Isinqumo sikaBrown asizange siqede ngokushesha isigaba sesikole − ukugqilazwa kwezingane kwabhekana nokumelana okukhulu ezingxenyeni eziningi zezwe. Nokho, samisa isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga okugunyaziwe nguhulumeni kwakuphula i-Encilial Protection Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14, kunikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho senhlangano yamalungelo omphakathi ebanzi yama-1950 nawo-1960.

Uthando Virginia (1967)

Elinye icala eliphawulekayo lamalungelo omphakathi lakhuluma ngemithetho enqabela ukushada kwabantu abahlukene ngokwezinhlanga. Ku-Loving v. Virginia, iNkantolo ePhakeme ngokuhlangene yaqeda ukuvinjelwa kweVirginia ngomshado wezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene, iphethe ukuthi imithetho enjalo yayiphula kokubili i-Encictal Protection Claus Expressurence ne-Guement Claus yeSimende se-14th Reference. Isinqumo sanciphisa imithetho efanayo ekhona ezindaweni eziyi-16 futhi saqinisekisa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyinkululeko eyinhloko engenakubekelwa imingcele esekelwe ezinhlangani.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Ngo-2015, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanweba imishado elingana nemibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo e-Obergefell v. Hodges. INkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sifuna ukuba izivumelwano zivunyelwe phakathi kwabantu ababili bobulili obufanayo futhi iqaphele imishado enjalo eyenziwa kwezinye izizwe. Lesi sinqumo sasho isiphetho samashumi eminyaka sokubhalisa i-LGBTQ futhi sashintsha ngokuyinhloko isimo esingokomthetho ngokuphathelene nomshado eMelika.

Izinqumo Zophawu Ngobulungisa Besigebengu Namalungelo Abamangalelwa

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izinqumo eziningi eziphawulekayo ezichaza amalungelo abantu abamangalelwa ngobugebengu, yamisa imingcele evimbela ukugcinwa komthetho - sisekelo nenkululeko engokomthetho.

Miranda v. e - Arizona (1966)

EMiranda naku - Arizona ngo - 1966, iNkantolo Ephakeme yacabangela amacala amane ahlukene lapho abamangalelwa bavuma khona emacaleni ngemva kokuboshwa nokuphenywa amaphoyisa ngaphandle kokutshelwa ngelungelo labo lokuba nommeli, inxusa elalibizwa ngokuthi u - Ernesto Miranda, elaboshwa amaphoyisa uPhoenix futhi lamangalelwa ngokuthumba nokudlwengula, futhi uMranda akazange atshelwe ukuthi unelungelo lakhe lokunikeza iseluleko, futhi ngemva kokuphenywa amahora amabili, wasayina ukuvuma icala.

Esinqumweni esingu-524, uMahluleli omkhulu u-Earl Warren wavuma ukuthi ukuphenywa kwalemibuzo kwakuphule isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu ekuzichaseni. INkantolo yathola ukuthi iziNkantolo zeSimemezelo zesihlanu nesesithupha zifuna amaphoyisa ukuba azise abantu abasejele ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula futhi basizwe ummeli.

Isinqumo sikaMiranda saholela ekuxwayisweni "kuyi-fulia" okumelwe amaphoyisa akunike ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwejele: "Unelungelo lokuthula. Konke okushoyo kungasetshenziswa kuwe enkantolo yomthetho. Unelungelo kummeli. Uma ungenammeli, uzakunikezwa." Lezi zixwayiso zibotshelelwe kakhulu emasikweni asemthethweni aseMelika futhi zimelela isivikelo esibalulekile ekuvumeni izono okuphoqelelwe.

UGideon (1963)

INkantolo yakhuluma ngokuthi ingabe uMthetho - sisekelo ufuna ukuba noma ubani omangalelwa ngecala, kodwa engakwazi ukukhokhela ummeli, aqinisekise usizo lwesihle lweseluleko esingokomthetho, futhi ngokweNkantolo Ephakeme evumelanayo, impendulo yayinguyebo, njengoba iNkantolo yathi ilungelo leSimemezelo Sesithupha lokusiza ekunikezeni iseluleko lisebenza ekuqulweni kwecala nokuthi “ababephula umthetho enkantolo ayidingekile, hhayi ukunethezeka ”?

Kanye nelungelo lokusiza abamangalelwa becala likahulumeni, isinqumo sikaGideyoni saba nomphumela wokwandisa izimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela izwe lonke. Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi ubumpofu babungeke buvimbele abamangalelwa ukuba bathole izimpawu ezingokomthetho ezanele, ngokuyisisekelo bushintshe isimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu futhi buvikele amalungelo abamangalelwa abanecala.

Map v. Ohio (1961)

EMap v.Ohio, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamisa umthetho "wokungathathi hlangothi," iphethe lowobufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungekho emthethweni nokuquleka ngeke busetshenziswe ekumangalelweni kwezephulamthetho zikahulumeni. Lesi sinqumo sandisa iSichibiyelo sesine sokuvikela ukuphenywa okungenangqondo nokuqubuka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, sidala isithiyo esinamandla sokumelana nokuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa nokuvikela amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ngenkululeko Yokukhuluma Namalungelo Okuqala

Isivikelo seSichibiyelo Sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma, yokunyathelisa, yenkolo, nesokuhlangana siye saba isihloko sezinqumo eziningi ezivelele zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zachaza izinga nemingcele yalenkululeko eyisisekelo.

IDes Moines (1969)

Ukuze baphikise iMpi yaseVietnam, uMary Beth Tinker nomfowabo babegqoka izindonga ezimnyama esikoleni, futhi besaba ukuphazamiseka, iziphathimandla ezazinqabela ukugqoka izindophi ezinjalo, kodwa amaTinker ayesuswa esikoleni lapho ehluleka ukuhambisana nazo, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi izenzo zabo zazivikelwe yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Isimemezelo esidumile seNkantolo ukuthi abafundi aba "bephulisanga amalungelo abo omthetho enkululeko yokukhuluma noma yokukhuluma esangweni lesikole" samisa izivikelo ezibalulekile zokukhuluma kwabafundi.

Johnson (19989)

Ukuze aphikise izimiso zeziphathimandla zikaReagan, uGregory Lee Johnson washisa ifulege laseMelika ngaphandle kweDallas City Hall, futhi waboshwa ngenxa yalesi senzo, kodwa wavuma ukuthi kwakuyinkulumo engokomfanekiso, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme yavuma, ikhipha isinqumo sokuthi inkulumo engokomfanekiso ivikelwe ngokusemthethweni ngisho nalapho kucasulwa umthetho.

Schenck v. waseUnited States (1919)

INkantolo yakhuluma ngokuthi inkulumo ethile, kuhlanganise nokuthumela amapheshana amelene nempi ukuba ayobuthela amadoda, enziwa ngesikhathi sempi futhi ebhekwa njengokwephula uMthetho Wesigebengu WesiThathiso Sokuqala, inqabela, futhi nakuba ummangalelwa ayeyokwazi ukusho imibono yakhe ngezikhathi ezivamile, iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi ezimweni ezithile, njengokuthi isizwe sisempini, ithethelela imingcele enjalo eSiphendulweni Sokuqala, ngesinqumo esingcono kakhulu esaziwayo sokwakha i - "Indabuko nengozi ekhona" incazelo yokuthi inkulumo yayingabekwa imingcele uma iveza ingozi ecacile nekhona.

Nakuba ukuhlolwa "kwesici esisobala nesikhona" kuye kwashintshwa kusukela ngalesosikhathi izinqumo ezilandelayo, uSchenc wamisa isimiso sokuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala asiphelele nokuthi inkulumo ingavinjelwa ezimweni ezithile ezilinganiselwe lapho iletha izingozi zangempela ekulondekeni komphakathi noma kwokulondeka kwesizwe.

Izinqumo Zophawu Kumandla Ezwe Nezentengiselwano

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yafeza indima ebalulekile ekuchazeni ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene negunya loMkhandlu lokulawula ezentengiselwano zamazwe ahlukene.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

INkantolo yanquma ukuthi imithetho ye-United States ishaya imithetho yezwe futhi ngenxa yalokho, uhulumeni awunakukhokha intela ebhange lesizwe, futhi isinqumo seMcCulloch samisa izimiso ezimbili ezibalulekile zomthetho womthetho-mthetho ongokomthetho osaqhubeka namuhla: isikisela amandla nobukhulu bombuso. Lesisinqumo sakuqala saveza ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe unamandla angaphezu kwalawo abekwe ngokucacile eMthethweni-sisekelo futhi umthetho kahulumeni uthatha indawo yokuqala kunemithetho ephikisanayo.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

INkantolo yathi iyindima kahulumeni kahulumeni wokulawula ezentengiselwano nokuthi ohulumeni bezwe abanakukwazi ukusungula imithetho yabo yezentengiselwano elawulayo, futhi iNkantolo yakha incazelo ebanzi ye "ikhomputha," icabanga ukuthi leligama lihlanganisa okungaphezu kokudayisa nokuthenga nje, kanye nethonya lamaGibbon asazizwa namuhla njengoba linikeza uhulumeni wezwe isisekelo esibanzi sokulawula intengiselwano yezomnotho. Lencazelo enkulu yezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano Clauslee inikeze isisekelo somthetho-mthetho-mthetho wezwe wanamuhla.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ngamalungelo Okuzala

Zimbalwa izingxenye zomthetho - sisekelo eziye zabangela impikiswano enkulu nempikiswano yomphakathi njengamalungelo okuzala, njengoba izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kulendawo zithinta kakhulu izigidi zamaMelika.

URade (1973)

INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi imithetho evimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu iphula ilungelo loMthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha imfihlo, futhi yathi, ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo se-Ayd Procession Claus, ingamane ilinganisele ukukhishwa kwezisu ekupheleni kokukhulelwa, ukuze ivikele ukuphila kowesifazane noma kombungu. Cishe iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu, Roe v. Wade wamisa ilungelo lomthetho lokukhipha isisu futhi wasungula amalungelo angokwesimiso ayimfihlo abesifazane ahlangene nezithakazelo zikahulumeni ekuvikeleni ukuphila.

Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022)

Umagazini waqala lapho umgcinisi wokukhipha isisu waseMississippi ebekela inselele umthetho - sisekelo ka-2018 ovimbela cishe zonke izisu ngemva kwamasonto angu-15 okukhulelwa, nezinkantolo eziphansi zisekela umthola-mpilo, zithola ukuthi umthetho waphikisa iSinkantolo esiPhakeme esimiswe eRoe nasePlanned Parenthood v. Casey, kodwa eDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhetha ukugumbula lezo zinqumo zezehlakalo.

INkantolo yathi uMthetho-sisekelo awuqinisekisi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu, njengoba lelilungelo lingashiwonga ngokucacile embhalweni, futhi alibhekwa "njengelisekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni wesizwe nasesikweni" njengelungelo elishiwo ngaphansi kwe-Century Programme Clause. Lesi sinqumo samelela okunye kokuhlehla okukhulu kwesibonelo emlandweni weNkantolo Ephakeme, ukubuyisela umthetho wokukhishwa kwesisu ezindaweni ezithile futhi kwakha umklamo wemithetho ehlukene yokukhipha izisu kulo lonke izwe.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ngokuthola Amalungelo Nokuhlanganyela Kwezombangazwe

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izinqumo eziningi ezithinta amalungelo okuvota, izimali zomkhankaso nokuhlanganyela kwezombangazwe, okuye kwathonya indlela ukubusa ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika okusebenza ngayo.

Buckley v. uValeo (1976)

Esinqumweni esasinethonya elikhulu esimisweni sezezimali somkhankaso, iNkantolo yakhipha imingcele ekusetshenzisweni komkhankaso, inengqondo yayo esekelwe embonweni oyisisekelo: imali esetshenziswa enqubweni yezombangazwe iwuhlobo lwenkulumo, futhi ngenxa yalokho, yanquma ukuthi ukunqanda izindleko ezilingana nokuvimbela inkulumo yezombangazwe ngokwayo, ngesinqumo sokukhankasa umkhankaso ongenakulinganiswa osetshenziswa isikhathi eside kakhulu lapho uhulumeni ungenasithakazelo esiphoqelelayo esithethelela imingcele.

Nokho, iNkantolo yawusekela umngcele emikhankasweni yezombangazwe, inquma ukuthi yayidingeka ukuze imelane "noqiniso noma ukubonakala kwethonya elingafanele" labo abanikelayo abaningi ababengaba nawo. Lomehluko phakathi kweminikelo nezindleko uye waguqula umthetho wezezimali iminyaka eminingi, uvumela ukuba abazongenela izimali namaqembu azimele basebenzise imali engalinganiselwe kuyilapho begcina imingcele ethile emikhankasweni eqondile.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ngamalungelo Ezibhamu

Isigodi saseColumbia v. Heller (2008)

Ngo-2008, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha isinqumo esiwuphawu lweSichibiyelo sesibili ecaleni leSifunda saseColumbia ngakolunye, nesinqumo sokubulala imithetho yemibhobho eqinile ye-Washington D.C., eyayihlanganisa ukuvinjelwa okuseduze kokuba nezakhamuzi zomphakathi, njengaseHeller, iNkantolo yanquma ngokokuqala ngqá ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uvikela ilungelo lezakhamuzi zaseMelika lokuba nezibhamu ekhaya ukuze zizitholele izibhamu futhi zivikeleke.

Phambi kweHeller, izazi eziningi zomthetho zasekela ukuchazwa okuncane kweSichibiyelo Sesibili, esigxile elungelweni lokuhlela amabutho kunokuvikela ikhaya lomuntu nempahla yakhe. Isinqumo seHeller ngokuyisisekelo sashintsha iSichibiyelo Sesibili ngokumisa ilungelo lomuntu ngamunye lokuphatha izikhali ezihlukene nenkonzo yamabutho.

Nokho, lesi sinqumo asiwuvimbeli wonke umthetho wokulawula izibhamu, njengoba nje udinga ukuhlakanipha okwengeziwe kwabenzi bemithetho, futhi nakuba ukuvinjelwa okuqondile kwezikhali kungasabhekwa njengomthetho - sisekelo, ezinye izimiso ezingokomthetho zokuba nebhamu kungase kuvunyelwe, futhi kunokuba kuvinjelwe ukuba nezibhamu, amadolobha aye adlulisa izimfuneko eziqinile zokuhlola isizinda noma izikhathi eziphoqelelwe zokulinda, abamisi - mthetho besungula okwengeziwe, besabela eNkantolo ngokusungula ezinye izixazululo zokuxazulula ubugebengu obunobudlova nobudlova bezibhamu.

Indima Yokukhohlisa Kwamaqaba Nezinkanyiso

Enye yezimiso eziyisisekelo eziqondisa ukwenza isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ukubuka idecisis, inkulumo yesiLatini esho "ukuma ngokwezinto ezinqunyiwe." lemfundiso ithi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele inqubo emisiwe emacalani angaphambili, zinikeze ukuzinza nokubikezela kwesimiso somthetho.

Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayiboshelwanga ngokuphelele ngezinqumo zayo zangaphambili. Kusukela ngo-202020, inkantolo yaze yazilawula ngokwayo emacaleni alinganiselwa ku-232 kusukela ngo-1810. INkantolo ingase igumbuqele inqubo yesinqumo sangaphambili lapho iphetha ngokuthi isinqumo sangaphambili sasinqunywe ngokungalungile, siye sabonakala singasebenzi, noma siphikisana nezenzakalo ezingokomthetho ezilandelayo.

Ukungezwani phakathi kokuhlonipha isibonelo nokulungisa amaphutha esikhathi esidlule kudala izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo eNkantolweni. Abanye amajaji bagcizelela ukubaluleka kokuzinza nokubikezela, bephikisa ngokuthi isibonelo kufanele sisuswe kuphela ezimweni ezingavamile. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo inomthwalo wemfanelo wokulungisa amaphutha omthetho-sisekelo, ngisho noma ukwenza kanjalo kudinga ukugumbuqela izenzakalo ezithathe isikhathi eside.

Umphumela Wezinqumo Zophawu Emphakathini WaseMelika

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezithatha indawo zimisa izenzakalo ezingokomthetho ezihlela ukusungulwa nokusetshenziswa kwezimiso. Imiphumela yalezi zinqumo idlulela ngalé kwamacala ahilelekile ngokuqondile, ithonya umthetho, izenzo zokuphatha, izinqumo zenkantolo eziphansi, nokuphila kwansuku zonke kwezigidi zaseMelika.

Lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha isinqumo esiphawulekayo, ngokuvamile ibangela ukulandelana kwemiphumela. Imithetho kungase kudingeke ukuba ilungise imithetho ukuze ivumelane nendinganiso entsha yomthetho-sisekelo. Kungase kudingeke ukuba izinhlangano zikahulumeni zishintshe imithetho yazo nezimiso zokugcinwa kwemithetho. Izinkantolo ezingaphansi kumelwe zisebenzise lesi sibonelo esisha ekulungiseni amacala. Abantu nezinhlangano zilungise ukuziphatha kwazo okusekelwe emithethweni emisha ecacile.

Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izinqumo eziphawulekayo zibhekene nokumelana okuphawulekayo futhi zithathe iminyaka noma ngisho amashumi eminyaka ukuze zisetshenziswe ngokugcwele.Isinqumo seBrown noNkulumbuso wemfundo, sathi ukuhlukaniswa kwesikole akunamthetho wezomthetho wesikole ngo - 1954, kodwa izikole eziningi zaqhubeka zihlukanisiwe iminyaka eminingi kamuva, zidinga iziyalezo ezengeziwe zenkantolo, umthetho kahulumeni, nezenzo zokugcinwa kwesikole ukuze zifinyelele ukuhlanganiswa okunenjongo.

Ezinye izinqumo zidala ukuvumelana ngokushesha kodwa zibangela izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo zezombangazwe nezezenhlalo. iObergefell yenza isinqumo esingokomthetho somshado ongokobulili obufanayo ezweni lonke saqala ukusebenza ngokushesha, kodwa izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka ngenkululeko engokwenkolo, amalungelo okutholwa, nezinye izimpikiswano ezihlobene ne-LGBTQ+ ukulingana.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela: Ukulinganisela Amandla Enkantolo Ephakeme

Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa amandla aphawulekayo ngokubukeza kokwahlulela nangendima yayo njengomhumushi wokugcina woMthetho - sisekelo, leNkantolo isebenza esimisweni sokuhlola nokulinganisela esilinganisela igunya layo.

UKhomishane ungandisa inani lomahluleli, unikeze umongameli amandla okuthonya izinqumo zesikhathi esizayo ngokumiswa, futhi uMkhandlu ungakhipha umthetho olinganisela ukubusa kweNkantolo Ephakeme nezinye izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngezindaba ezithile, njengoba kusikiselwa ngolimi kuyi-Cate 2 yeSiphakamiso Sesithathu, lapho i-apeltection inikezwa khona "nalezozimelwane, futhi ngaphansi kwemithetho enjengesiKhongolo."

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinguquko zomthetho-mthetho zingasigumbuqela isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme. Uma iNkantolo ichaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngendlela iSishaya-mthetho nezwe okungamukeleki ngayo, zingawulungisa uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo ukuze umise umthetho ohlukile. Lokhu kuye kwenzeka izikhathi eziningana emlandweni waseMelika, njengalapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo seSiphendu seMinyaka Eyisine sigumbula isinqumo sikaDred Scott esasithi amaMelika angebesenakuba abe izakhamuzi.

Inkantolo futhi ixhomeke egatsheni eliphethe ukuze iqinise izinqumo zayo. Njengoba uAlexander Hamilton aphawula kuFederalist No. 78, ijaji alinathonya enkembani noma esikhwameni semali futhi kumelwe lithembele egatsheni eliphethe ukuze lisebenzise izinqumo zalo. Lokhu kuncika kuveza okunye ukuhlola emandleni okwahlulela.

Isimiso Senkantolo Ephakeme

Igama ngalinye lihlanganisa izinkathi ezishintshanayo cishe zamasonto amabili ezaziwayo njenge "zihlezi" ne "zinhlalo," kanye namajaji amacala okuzwa nokukhipha iziyalezo ngesikhathi sokuhlala, kuyilapho bexoxa ngezindaba futhi bebhala imibono ngesikhathi sesigaba sokushaya indiva. Lesimiso esihleliwe sivumela ukulinganisela imfuneko yokuzwa izimpikiswano zomlomo nomsebenzi omkhulu wokucwaninga, ukubhala, nokulungisa imibono yabo.

Izimpikiswano ezidluliselwa ngenkulumo ngokuvamile ziphetha ngoApril nangegama elisele leNkantolo ikhipha iziyalezo nemibono, njengoba iNkantolo ivame ukuhlehla ekupheleni kukaJune, kodwa umsebenzi wamahluleli awupheli, njengoba phakathi nehlobo ziqhubeka zihlaziya izicelo ezintsha zokubukeza, zicabangele ukuthatha isinyathelo nokusebenza, futhi kumelwe zenze amalungiselelo amacala ahlelelwe ukuqulwa kwempikiswano.

Umjikelezo waminyaka yonke weNkantolo uveza izindlela ezicacile lapho kumenyezelwa izinqumo ezinkulu. Icala eliphikisana kakhulu neliqashelwe kakhulu livame ukunqunywa ngoJune, njengoba abahluleli besebenzela ukuqeda imibono yabo ngaphambi kwekhefu lasehlobo. Lokhu kuchaza ukuthi izinqumo ezingokophawu lwezenzakalo zivame ukufika ngamaqoqo ekupheleni kwegama, zibangela ukushukuma okukhulu kwezindaba nokunakwa komphakathi.

Indima Yabefundisi Bomthetho Enkantolo Ephakeme Yokwenza Isinqumo

Ijaji ngalinye leNkantolo Ephakeme lisebenzisa omabhalane bezomthetho abaningana cishe bamuva nje abathweswe iziqu zesikole somthetho abaphumelela kakhulu ngokwemfundo. Laba omabhalane bafeza indima ebalulekile emsebenzini weNkantolo, nakuba izinga lethonya labo lihluka phakathi kobulungisa.

Ngaphambi kokuba baye eNgqungquthelani, abahluleli bavame ukuxoxa ngezindaba ezihlobene nalezo nababhali bezomthetho, befuna ukuthola imibono ehlukile ngecala, futhi ekupheleni kwalezi zikhathi, ngezinye izikhathi abahluleli banomqondo omuhle ngendlela abazovota ngayo kulendaba; ngezinye izikhathi, abangebodwa. Omabhalane bomthetho bacwaninga izindaba ezingokomthetho, babukeze izikhalo ze - certiorari, izicelo zebhentshi zendaba ezifingqa amacala ngaphambi kwempikiswano yomlomo, futhi ngokuvamile balungiselele izinqubo zokuqala zemibono.

Ubulungisa obubodwa bunquma indlela ayovota ngayo ukuba avume noma alahle isicelo ngasinye se-certiorari, ngokuvamile ecela ukuba umabhalane womthetho acubungule isicelo, ngokusebenzisa i-"certer" system. Echibini le-creet, onomabhalane bemithetho abathatha isigaba samagumbi basebenza ndawonye ukubukeza izicelo futhi balungise umsebenzi owenzelwa abahluleli abahlanganyelayo, bevumela ukuphunyezwa okuphumelela kakhulu kwezinkulungwane zezicelo ezidluliswayo.

Ukuqashelwa Umphakathi Nokuvunyelwa KweNkantolo Ephakeme

Amandla eNkantolo Ephakeme ekugcineni axhomeke ekwamukeni komphakathi ngokulunga nokuvuma kwayo ngokuvumelana nezinqumo zayo. Ngokungafani namagatsha kahulumeni akhethiwe, iNkantolo ayinakusho ukuthi inegunya eliqondile lentando yeningi, ithembele emphakathini ekungakhethi kwayo ikakhulukazi.

Iminyaka yamuva nje kuye kwahlolwa kakhulu indima yeNkantolo nokufaneleka kwayo. Inani lesinqumo sobunye lithole ukuthi isilinganiso seminyaka engu-20 sehla kusukela ku-50% kuya ku-30% ngo-2021 kanti imithetho yeqembu yanyuka kusukela ku-60 weminyaka ngesilinganiso esingaphezulu kakhulu kwe-zero kuya ku-21%, uRyan Williams ekhomba amavoti eqembu ukuze aqinisekiswe njengobufakazi bokuthi inkantolo ibalulekile ku-Gabe.

Ukuhlolwa kwe-AP-NORC kwabonisa 7 kwabayishumi ababuzwa ukuthi inkantolo inquma ukuthi ifuna ukuhlolwa imibandela efuna ukuzuza imibono yabo siqu" ngokuphambene "nokuthatha i-check ezimele kwamanye amagatsha kahulumeni ngokuba nobulungisa nokungakhethi". Lemibono iphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekile mayelana nendlela iNkantolo engalondoloza ngayo ukuthembeka kwayo nomphakathi enkathini yokuwohloka okukhulu kwezombangazwe.

Ikusasa Lezinqumo ZeNkantolo Eziphakeme Zezwe

INkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka ibhekene nemibuzo emisha engokomthetho - sisekelo eyobumba umthetho waseMelika nomphakathi wezizukulwane ezizayo. ubuchwepheshe obuhlanganisayo buphakamisa imibuzo emisha ngokuphathelene yimfihlo, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile, nokuqapha kukahulumeni. Izimo zengqondo zomphakathi eziphazamisayo zidala izimpikiswano ezintsha mayelana nokulingana namalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Izinqumo zesikhathi esizayo eziwuphawu oluphawulekayo zingase zikhulume ngezindaba ezinjengokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kokwenziwa nemithetho elawulayo, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu nemithetho yendawo ezungezile, ukwakheka kwamandla okulawula ezimweni eziphuthumayo, amalungelo okuvota nokuqondisa okhetho, inkululeko engokwenkolo emphakathini oya uhlukahluka, nokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zomthetho - sisekelo eziteshini zokuxhumana nezokuxhumana nezokuxhumana.

Njengoba lezizindaba zifika eNkantolo Ephakeme, amajaji aqhubekela phambili isiko elide lenhlangano lokuchaza izimiso ezihlala njalo zoMthetho-sisekelo uma kucatshangelwa izimo zanamuhla. Izinqumo abazenzayo ziyoba yingxenye yengxoxo eqhubekayo mayelana nalokho okushiwo uMthetho-sisekelo nendlela isivikelo sawo esisebenza ngayo ezinkingeni ezintsha ezingalindelekile zabaHlameli.

Ukuqonda Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ebuthweni Lentando Yeningi LaseMelika

INkantolo Ephakeme inesikhundla esikhethekile kuhulumeni waseMelika njengendikimba engakhethwanga enamandla okuqeda izenzo zezikhulu ezikhethwe ngedemokrasi. Lendima ephikisana nenkolo idala ukungezwani okungokwemvelo kodwa futhi ifeza imisebenzi ebalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo omthetho nokulondoloza ukubusa komthetho.

Ngokusebenza njengomhumushi wokugcina woMthetho - sisekelo, iNkantolo ivikela amalungelo amancane ekubuseni kweningi, iqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana nemingcele engokomthetho, ixazulula izingxabano phakathi kwamazinga ahlukene kahulumeni naphakathi kwamagatsha ahlukene, futhi inikeza ukuzinza nokubikezela ngokuthuthukisa izimiso ezingokomthetho ezingaguquki.

Ukuqonda indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme eyenza ngayo izinqumo eziphawulekayo − kusukela esicelweni sokuqala sempikiswano yomlomo, izingqungquthela zangasese, ukuhlelwa kwemibono, kanye nencwadi yokugcina — kwembula inqubo yokukhetha ecophelela elawula umthetho nomphakathi waseMelika. Nakuba izinqumo ngazinye zingase ziphikiswe kakhulu ngencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, isikhungo ngokwaso siseyisisekelo sombuso wentando yeningi waseMelika.

Kubantu abafuna ukuqonda uhulumeni nomthetho waseMelika, ulwazi lwendima yeNkantolo ePhakeme nezinqumo zengqophamlando lubalulekile. Lezi zinqumo zithinta amalungelo ayisisekelo, zilololonga isimiso somphakathi, futhi ziveza izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngezindinganiso zomthetho-mthetho. Ngokuhlola amacala angokomthetho olandelwayo nokuqonda inqubo yokwenza kwesinqumo seNkantolo, amaMelika angahlanganyela kangcono enkulumweni yentando yeningi ngenjongo yoMthetho-mthetho futhi ahileleke ezindabeni ezingothinta ukuphila kwawo.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zimelela okungaphezu nje kwemithetho engokomthetho, ihlanganisa ukuqonda kwezwe okuhambisana nokushintsha kwezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo, ibonakalisa ukushintsha kwezindinganiso zomphakathi, futhi ibonisa indlela incwadi eyabhalwa eminyakeni engaphezu kwengamakhulu amabili edlule eqhubeka iqondisa idemokrasi yaseMelika. Njengoba izinselele ezintsha zivela futhi umphakathi uqhubeka uzenza zivele, ngokungangabazeki iNkantolo izokhipha izinqumo ezintsha ezingoko ezizofundwa izizukulwane ezizayo njengezikhathi ezimqoka emlandweni wezomthetho nezenhlalo yaseMelika.

Kulabo abanesithakazelo sokufunda okwengeziwe ngezinqubo zeNkantolo Ephakeme namacala aphawulayo, imithombo eyigugu ihlanganisa ingosi yeNkantolo Ephakeme , , i-[FLT] U.S. imithombo yemfundo esekelwe eSibonelweni seNkantolo ePhakeme[[, [[FLT]], [[FLT]] SCOBYMYYYY[[ yezindaba zeNkantolo enkulu nenhlokozo, iSikhundla sesizwe sezemfundo yomthetho, kanye neprojekthi yemida. [[FLT:]