Table of Contents
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zimelela enye yezinsika ezintathu eziyinhloko zikahulumeni wase-United States, ezisebenza njengegatsha lokwahlulela elichaza imithetho, elixazulula izingxabano, futhi livikela izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda indima nohlelo lwezinkantolo zikahulumeni kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda indlela idemokrasi yaseMelika esebenza ngayo nendlela ubulungisa obusetshenziswa ngayo ezingeni lesizwe. Lezi zinkantolo zisebenzisa amandla aphawulekayo ekulolongeni izimo ezingokomthetho, ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye, futhi zilondoloze ukulinganisela okubucayi kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha kahulumeni.
INhlangano Yomthetho - sisekelo Yezinkantolo Zesizwe
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zakhiwa ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo ukuze kunikezwe ubulungisa ngokungakhethi, phakathi kwegunya elamiswa nguMthetho-sisekelo noMkhandlu. ISiphakamiso III, iSiqeshana I sithi "Umbuso wokwahlulela wase-United States, uzobekwa eNkantolweni eyodwa ephakeme, futhi eziNkantolo eziphansi njengaseNkantolo yeSishayamthetho zingabekwa futhi zimiswe.
Lelilungiselelo lomthetho ngokomthetho lamisa uhlelo oluyingqayizivele lwesimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika. INkantolo Ephakeme iwukuphela kwenkantolo kahulumeni emiswe ngokucacile nguMthetho-sisekelo, kuyilapho uMkhandlu unikwe igunya lokwakha izinkantolo eziphansi ngokwesidingo. Leli lungiselelo labonisa ukuvumelana okucophelelayo phakathi kwamaFramers, aphikisana kakhulu ngendima nesakhiwo esifanelekile sejaji likahulumeni.
Phakathi nezinsuku zokuqala ze-Federal Convention ngo-1787, izihambeli zavumelana ngokuthi icebo lazo lohulumeni omusha lalizohlanganisa ikomiti yokwahlulela yesizwe, futhi iSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo samisa lelohlobo ukuba kumiswe iNkantolo Ephakeme futhi sashiyelwa eNkantolo yeSishaya-mthetho ukuze kunqunywe ukuthi ezinye izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziyoba yingxenye yejaji lesizwe esisha. Lesi sinqumo salinganisela isidingo sesimiso somthetho esiqinile sikahulumeni esikhathalela ukubeka amandla amakhulu kakhulu kuhulumeni wezwe.
Umthetho KaJudiyu Ka - 1789
UKhongolose waqala ukusebenzisa lo mbuso eMthethweni ka-1789, owadala iNkantolo Ephakeme enamajaji ayisithupha futhi wamisa isimiso esiphansi senkantolo kahulumeni. Lo mthetho ophawulayo wabeka isisekelo sejaji lezwe njengoba sazi namuhla, wakha isimiso esinezingxenye ezintathu esiye savela kodwa salondoloza isakhiwo sayo esiyisisekelo amakhulu amabili eminyaka.
UMthetho Wezomthetho ka - 1789 wawuyingqopha - mlando ebalulekile emlandweni wesimiso sokwahlulela sase - United States, umisa isimiso nokubusa kwenkantolo kahulumeni, okwaphumela ekusungulweni kweNkantolo Ephakeme enamajaji ayisithupha, izinkantolo zesigodi eziyishumi nantathu, nezinkantolo zesifunda ezintathu.
Izakhiwo Ezifaka Icala ZeNkantolo KaFederal
Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sisebenza njengesimiso sesigaba sezikhulu esinezinga eliyinhloko ezintathu, ngayinye ifeza imisebenzi ehlukile ekuqondiseni ubulungisa. Lenhlangano iqinisekisa ukuthi amacala azwakala ngesilinganiso esifanele futhi anikeze izinqubo zokubukeza nokukhanga.
Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseUnited States: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala
Izinkantolo zesifunda noma zamacala ezingu-94 zesizwe zibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda sase-U.S. lezinkantolo zisebenza njengesisekelo sesimiso sokwahlulela sikahulumeni, lapho amacala amaningi kahulumeni eqala khona. Izinkantolo zesigodi zixazulula izimpikiswano ngokunquma amaqiniso nangokusebenzisa umthetho kulawo maqiniso.
Izinkantolo zesifunda zase-United States ziyizinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala lenkantolo kahulumeni, futhi phakathi nemingcele ebekwe yiSishaya-mthetho noMthetho-sisekelo, izinkantolo zesifunda zinegunya lokulalela cishe zonke izigaba zamacala kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nazo zombili izindaba zombango nobugebengu. Lezinkantolo zisingatha zonke izinto kusukela ekumangalelweni kwecala lomthetho likahulumeni noma emacaleni angokomthetho ahilela imibuzo kahulumeni noma ukwahlukahlukana kwezakhamuzi.
Inkantolo yesigodi ngayinye inejaji elilodwa lesifunda lase-United States, elimiswe nguMongameli futhi liqinisekiswe uMkhandlu wesikhathi sokuphila. Empeleni, izigodi ezinkulu zingaba nabahluleli abaningi abasingatha icala. Abahluleli benkantolo yesigodi baqondisa ukuqulwa kwecala, ukubusa ngezenzo, ukuthatha izinto, nokukhipha izahlulelo. Bangabatholi bangempela esimisweni sikahulumeni, banqume ukuthi kwenzekani ngempela emacaleni aphikisanayo ngecala, ubufakazi, nobufakazi.
Izinkantolo zesigodi zisebenzisa amajaji asiza ngemisebenzi ehlukahlukene yokwahlulela. Ngo-1968, uKhongolo wagunyaza izinkantolo zesifunda ukuba zimise izimantshi (lesi siqu sashintshwa saba "amajaji asemthethweni" ngo-1990). La baphathi abahluleli basingatha izindaba zokwandulela, benza izenzakalo zokuqala ezicaleni zobugebengu, futhi bangase ngisho balungise nokuqulwa kwecala ngemvume yamaqembu.
Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala Zase - United States: Izinga Lokuphaza Kwase - Intermeterte
Kunezinkantolo zezibalo eziyi - 13 ezihlala ngaphansi kweNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. zibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zezicelo zase-U.S. lezinkantolo ezithatha iziphakamiso zifeza indima ebalulekile esimisweni sokwahlulela sikahulumeni ngokubukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda nangokuqinisekisa ukusebenza okungaguquguquki komthetho kahulumeni.
Izigodi ezingamashumi ayisishiyagalolunye anesine zezahlulelo zinezinkantolo ezingu-13 eziphakathi ezibizwa ngokuthi iziNkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala zase-U.S. ngezinye izikhathi zibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni. Lezi zinkantolo zizwa izinselele zezinqumo zenkantolo eziphansi zenkantolo yesifunda sase-U.S. ezisezinsimini, kanye nezikhalo ezivela ezinqumweni zezinhlangano zezombuso eziphethe, njengezinkantolo zezezokuphepha zezenhlalo noma izinkantolo zezezezimali.
Umsebenzi wenkantolo ethatha isigwebo uwukunquma ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa kahle yini enkantolo enkantolo noma enxusa lezenkantolo. Ngokungafani nezinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zezikhalo aziqhubeli macala amasha noma zizwe ubufakazi obusha. Kunalokho, zibukeza umbhalo ogciniwe enkantolo ephansi, zihlole iziphakamiso ezibhaliwe ezibhalwe emaqenjini, futhi zivame ukuzwa izimpikiswano ezishiwo abameli.
Kunezifunda eziyishumi nambili ezisekelwe ezindaweni zendawo kanye nesifunda esisodwa sikahulumeni esiphethe izwe lonke ukuzwa izikhalo ezikhethekile emacaleni, njengalezo ezihilela imithetho engokomthetho, namacala anqunywa yiNkantolo ye-U.S. izifundazwe zezwe zibalwa zisuka ku-11 kuya ku-11, kanye ne-Frigion of Columbia Friarter. INkantolo Yezingcingo zeFederal iphethe wonke amazwe ukuzwa izikhalo ezingokomthetho ezikhethekile, njengalezo ezihilela imithetho yemvume nezomthetho esemthethweni enqunywe yiNkantolo yezizwe zonke ze-Federal Auvens.
Inkantolo yesifunda ngayinye inamajaji amaningi, kusukela kwabayisithupha kuya kwabayisithupha eSifundeni sokuqala kuya kwabangamashumi amabili nane esifundeni. Izikhalo eziya ezinkantolo zesifunda zizwakala okokuqala ngeqembu, elinamajaji amathathu enkantolo yesifunda. Emacaleni angavamile ahilela imibuzo engokomthetho ebaluleke kakhulu, yonke inkantolo ingalalela icala "elivimbelayo," isho ukuthi bonke abahluleli abakhuthele bayahlanganyela esinqumweni.
INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States: INkantolo Ephakeme Kunazo Zonke
INkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States ineJaji Eliyinhloko laseUnited States namajaji angu - 8 ahlangene. Ngokushesha ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, inani lezihlalo eNkantolo lamiswa ngo - 9, futhi namuhla, kunoMahluleli Oyinhloko oyedwa noMahluleli abayisishiyagalombili abaHlulelanayo beNkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States.
INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States iyinkantolo yokugcina ethatha isinyathelo, futhi ngokuvamile izwa izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zezikhalo (futhi ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo zikahulumeni), zisebenza ngokuhlola ngokuqondisisa, okusho ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ingakhetha ukuthi yimaphi amacala okumelwe awazwe, ngokunikeza izicelo zokukhokha i-ceretiorari. Ingaphansi kwe-1% yezicelo ze-certiorari eNkantolweni Ephakeme zinikezwa ukubukezwa; iningi lamacala asele lingasenganakwa noma liphiwe, ngokwenza izinqumo ezinkantolo eziphansi ngokuphumelelayo.
INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa izinhlobo ezimbili zokulawula. INkantolo inegunya lokuqala (icala liqulwa phambi kweNkantolo) emacaleni athile, ngokwesibonelo, isambatho phakathi kwezifundazwe ezimbili noma ngaphezulu noma amacala ahilela amanxusa nezinye izikhonzi zomphakathi. Nokho, amacala okulawula aqala ayivamile. INkantolo inegunya (iNkantolo ingalizwa icala ekudluliseni) cishe kunoma iliphi elinye icala elihilela iphuzu lomthetho-sisekelo kanye nomthetho kahulumeni.
Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile
Ngaphandle kwesakhiwo esiqinile sezinkantolo zesigodi ezintathu, izinkantolo zezikhalo, neNkantolo Ephakeme, isimiso sikahulumeni sihlanganisa izinkantolo eziningana ezikhethekile ezisingatha amacala ahlukahlukene.
Kunezinkantolo ezingu - 90 ezibole imali eshisiwe e - United States, ezisiza abantu namabhizinisi angakwazi ukukhokha izikweletu zabo ukuba bathole “isiqalo esisha. ” ngasinye sezigodi zomthetho ezingu - 94 sisingatha izindaba zokuwa kwamacala okulahlekelwa, futhi cishe kuzo zonke izifunda, amacala okulahlekelwa imali agcinwa enkantolo ekhohlakele, njengoba amacala okukhokhwa kwamacala emali enkantolo kahulumeni enkantolo.
Ezinye izinkantolo zinegunya ezweni lonke ezimpikiswano ezinjengentela (United States Trutho Court), zithi zimelene nohulumeni kahulumeni (United States Court of Federal Anties), futhi zimelene nezohwebo lwezizwe zonke (United States Court of International Trade). Lezinkantolo ezikhethekile zithuthukisa ubuchwepheshe ezindaweni eziyinkimbinkimbi zomthetho, zinikeza izinqumo ezinolwazi oluthe kratya futhi ezingaguquguquki ezindaweni zazo.
Isigwebo: Amandla Okuzwa Izindaba
Ukuqonda igunya lenkantolo kahulumeni kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela isimiso sokwahlulela sikahulumeni esisebenza ngayo. Icala libhekisela egunyeni elingokomthetho lenkantolo lokulalela nokunquma icala. Izinkantolo ze-Federal zinegunya elilinganiselwe, okusho ukuthi zingalalela kuphela izinhlobo ezithile zamacala njengoba zichazwe nguMthetho-sisekelo nezimiso zikahulumeni.
Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sokulahlwa Kwecala Kwama - Federal
Umbuso wokwahlulela uzakudlulela kuwo wonke amaBanga, eMthethweni nase-Equality, evela ngaphansi kwaloMthetho-sisekelo, iMithetho yase-United States, noma ezakwenziwa, ngaphansi kwegunya lawo;-onke Amacala athinta amanxusa, amanye abefundisi noMnyango womphakathi;-okanye izakhamuzi; kuzo zonke iziBakathi zempi yempi nenkathi yasolwandle; izifundazwe ezifanayo ezithi ngaphansi kwezwe elihlukile, iZwe elihlangene lizoba iNxanxathela; i-Controustation; i-Controverss phakathi kwezizwe ezimbili noma ngaphezulu; izifundazwe nezakhamuzi; izakhamuzi zasezweni ezihlukene; izakhamuzi zaseZwenikazini ezithiwa ngaphansi kwezwe elifanayo, noma izifunda zakwamanye amazwe, noma izakhamuzi, noma izakhamuzi, noma izakhamuzi, zezizwe, noma izikhulu, zezwe, noma izikhulu, noma izikhulu, zezwe, noma izikhulu.
Lelilungiselelo lomthetho - sisekelo limisa imingcele engaphandle yegunya lenkantolo kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza iSiphakamiso III njengesimisa imingcele engaphandle yegunya lenkantolo kahulumeni: ISishaya - mthetho asinakunikeza igunya elingaphezu kwalokho iSiphakamiso III esigunyaza, kodwa akudingeki ukuba sinikeze izinkantolo zikahulumeni igunya eliphelele esingase silikhethe ukuvumelana negunya elingokomthetho.
Isinqumo Semibuzo KaFederal
U-Claus unikeza igunya lenkantolo kahulumeni emacaleni aqulwa ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho noma izivumelwano ze-United States (ngezinye izikhathi ezibizwa ngokuthi i-sociation quality). Loluhlobo lokulawula luvumela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zilalele amacala ahilela ukuchazwa noma ukusebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-sisekelo, noma izivumelwano. I-gasterl ye-gallery iqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uchazwa ngokulinganayo kulo lonke izwe futhi izithakazelo zikahulumeni ziyavikelwa.
Icala elihilela umthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho kahulumeni, izinselele zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo zokumisa noma imithetho kahulumeni, ukwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni, nezimpikiswano ngemithetho kahulumeni konke kuxhomeke ekuncipheni kwemibuzo kahulumeni.
Ukulahlwa Okuhlukahlukene
Izimpikiswano phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifunda ezihlukene (eziyaziwa ngokuthi imibuso ehlukene) zimelela esinye isigaba esibalulekile sokulawula kwenkantolo kahulumeni. Ukulawula ngokwezinhlobonhlobo kuvumela isikhulu sombuso owodwa ukuba sifake icala enkantolo kahulumeni lapho ummangalelwa esendaweni ehlukile, futhi ukuze kubekwe umthetho kahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni, wonke ama-paltiff kumelwe abesezindaweni ezihlukene kunabo bonke abamangalelwa, futhi "osempikiswaneni" kumelwe abe ngaphezu kuka-R350 000.
Izimiso zezinhlanga zasungulwa ukuze kunikezwe ukuphikisana phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifunda ezihlukene, kukhulunywe ngezinkathazo ezithi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingakhetha izakhamuzi zazo.
Ukunqunywa Okukhethekile Nokuphelele
Ukubusa kwamanje kulapho kokubili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni zinegunya lokuzwa uhlobo olufanayo lwecala, amacala okulawula izinhlobonhlobo ayisibonelo esivamile, futhi impikiswano phakathi kwamaqembu avela ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene ingabekwa enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni, futhi ukukhetha kuyisinqumo esingokomthetho.
Kukhona ukubusa okuphelele lapho isimiso senkantolo esisodwa kuphela esingazwa khona amacala athile, ukuwiswa kwamacala, ukubhaliswa kwemali, ukugunyazwa kwemvume, kanye nombuso omelene nokuthembeka kunguhulumeni kuphela, futhi isehlukaniso, ukuwinwa kwabantwana, neprobate kuyisifundazwe esikhethekile.
Imisebenzi Namandla Abalulekile Enkantolo Yesizwe
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zenza imisebenzi eminingi ebalulekile ehlanganisa okungaphezu kokunquma amacala ahlukahlukene.
Ukuhumusha Umthetho Kahulumeni Nomthetho - sisekelo
Enye yemisebenzi eyinhloko yezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuchaza imithetho kahulumeni, imithetho, namalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo. Uma imithetho ingacacile noma lapho ukusebenza kwayo ezimweni ezithile kungacacile, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinikeza izincazelo ezinegunya eziqondisa ukuziphatha nezokuthatha izinqumo zesikhathi esizayo. Lezincazelo ziba yizibonelo okumelwe izinkantolo eziphansi zilandele, ziqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki ekusebenziseni umthetho kahulumeni.
Izinkantolo zomphakathi zichaza noMthetho - sisekelo ngokwawo, zinqume incazelo yamalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo nendlela asebenza ngayo ezindabeni zamanje. Le nqubo yokuchaza uMthetho - sisekelo ivumela ukuba uhlale uyincwadi ephilayo evumelana nezimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho ilondoloza izimiso zawo eziyisisekelo.
Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela: Ukuhlola Amanye Amagatsha
Igunya elaziwayo kakhulu leNkantolo Ephakeme ukubukeza, noma ikhono leNkantolo lokumemezela isenzo somthetho noma sokuphatha ngokuphula uMthetho-sisekelo, futhi alitholakali embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo; iNkantolo yamisa lemfundiso ecaleni likaMarbury v. Madison (103).
Kulendaba, iNkantolo kwakumelwe inqume ukuthi uMthetho Wesishaya - mthetho noma uMthetho - sisekelo wawuwumthetho ophakeme wezwe, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme yaphawula ukuthi uMthetho - sisekelo awuzange uvumele iNkantolo ukuba ilawule lendaba, futhi njengoba iSiphakamiso VII soMthetho - sisekelo simisa uMthetho - sisekelo Wezwe njengoMthetho - sisekelo Ophakeme, iNkantolo yayithi uMthetho Wesishaya - mthetho ophambene noMthetho - sisekelo awunakuma.
Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kumelela elinye lamagunya abaluleke kakhulu ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, elivumela ukuba liqede imithetho nezenzo zezikhulu eziphula uMthetho-sisekelo. Lombuso usebenza njengenhlolo - kuhlolwa okubalulekile emagatsheni omthetho nabaphathi, uvimbela ekudluleni amandla awo angokomthetho noma ekuphuleni amalungelo awo asemthethweni. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziqinisekisa ukuthi zonke izenzo zikahulumeni zihambisana nokulinganiselwa komthetho-mthetho kanye nesivikelo.
Ngenxa yamandla ayo okuhlola ukwahlulela, ifeza indima ebalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi igatsha ngalinye likahulumeni liqaphela imingcele yamandla alo.
Ukuvikela Amalungelo Nenkokhelo Kanye
Ivikela amalungelo omphakathi nenkululeko ngokushaya imithetho ephula uMthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo zeFederal ziye zafeza indima ebalulekile kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye ngokungemthetho. Ukusuka ekuhlawulweni kuya ekuvikeleni inkululeko yokukhuluma, ekukhululekeni kwenqubo yobugebengu kuya ekuvikelweni okulinganayo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zathatha phambili ekuchazeni nasekusebenziseni amalungelo omthetho.
Le nkonzo ibaluleke ngokukhethekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo amancane ezingcindezi ezinkulu, njengoba amajaji kahulumeni aphila ukuphila konke evikeleka ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi angenza izinqumo ezisekelwe ezimisweni zomthetho - sisekelo kunokuba zisekelwe embonweni othandwayo.
Ukuxazulula Izingxabano Phakathi Kwamazwe
Ezinye izibonelo zezindaba eziqondene nemithetho yenkantolo kahulumeni zihlanganisa ukunqatshelwa kwecala lombuso necala lasolwandle, amacala i-United States eyiQembu, nezimpikiswano phakathi kwezifundazwe. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinikeza imvume yokungathathi hlangothi ekuxazululeni izingxabano phakathi kwezwe, ukuvimbela izingxabano ezingabhebhebhethekisa izingxabano ezinkulu. Lezi zimpikiswano zingahlanganisa izingxabano zomngcele, amalungelo amanzi, noma ezinye izindaba lapho izifunda zinezithakazelo eziphikisanayo.
Ukusekela Ukusetshenziswa Komthetho Ofanayo
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni usetshenziswa ngokungaguquguquki ezweni lonke. Ngaphandle kwesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni, imibuso ehlukene ingachaza umthetho kahulumeni ngokuhlukile, kuholele ekudidekeni nasekungalinganini. Isimiso sezikhulu zezinkantolo zikahulumeni, neNkantolo Ephakeme, ivumela ukusungulwa kwezimiso ezingokomthetho ezifanayo ezisebenza kulo lonke izwe.
AbaHluleli AbawuFederal: Ukumiswa, Ukubusa, Nokuzibusa
Abahluleli abakhonza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni bahlukile ezikhulwini zikahulumeni endleleni ezikhetha ngayo nasekuvikeleni ezikunikezayo ukuze zizimele.
Inqumbi yokunqumelana usuku
ISiphakamiso III sithi amajaji kahulumeni amiswa umongameli ngemvume yeSigele ukuba akhonze kuze kube yilapho ephuma, elahlwa futhi elahlwa icala, noma efa.
Inqubo yokumisa iqala ngokuveza izimpawu, ngokuvamile ngomfakela ovela kumanxusa, izinhlangano zomthetho, nakumanxusa. Khona - ke uMongameli uveza umbhalisa, futhi iKomiti yeSigele ithatha icala ukuze kuhlolwe izimfanelo zomnyunyana, ifilosofi yokwahlulela, kanye nokufaneleka kwesikhundla. Uma ikomiti ivuma, ubufazi buye eSigebengwini esigcwele ukuze kuvotelwe.
Lenqubo iqinisekisa ukuthi amajaji kahulumeni ayasekelwa kokubili amagatsha aphethe nawabezi bemithetho, ikhuthaza ukufaneleka nokulandisa kuyilapho kulondolozwa ukuzimela kokwahlulela lapho kumiswe.
Isikhathi Sokuphila Nesivikelo Sokuthengiswa Kwemali
AbaHluleli, kokubili abayizinkantolo eziphakeme neziphansi, bayogcina amaHhovisi abo phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, futhi, ngezikhathi ezithile, bayokwamukela izinkonzo zabo, iNkantolo, engeke incishiswe phakathi neNkathi yabo Ehhovisi.
Ngokuvamile, banezikhundla zokuphila konke, amaholo abahluleli ngeke ancishiswe phakathi nesikhathi sabo sokubusa, futhi lemingcele ihloselwe ukuvikela ukuzimela kwejaji emagatsheni kahulumeni ezombangazwe.
Isikhathi sokuphila siyisisekelo sozimele kokwahlulela. Ngokukhonza "ukuziphatha okuhle," amajaji kahulumeni avikelekile ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi angenza izinqumo ezisekelwe ekuqondeni kwabo umthetho noMthetho-sisekelo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukulahlekelwa izikhundla zabo. Lokhu ukuzimela kuvumela abahluleli ukuba benze izinqumo ezingathandeki kodwa ezilungile ngokomthetho, bavikele amalungelo amancane futhi bamise ukulinganiselwa komthetho ngisho nalapho benza kanjalo kungqubuzana nezintando zezikhulu ezikhethiwe noma izikhundla ezinkulu ezithandwayo.
Ukwenqatshelwa kokunciphisa amaholo okwahlulela kunikeza isivikelo esengeziwe sokuzimela ekwahluleleni, kuvimbela uMkhandlu noma uMongameli ukuba asebenzise ukucindezela okungokwezimali ukuze athonye izinqumo zokwahlulela.
Ukususwa Ngokuhluleka
Abahluleli bangase babe nesikhundla sabo kukho konke ukuphila kwabo, kodwa abaningi bayeka noma bathathe umhlalaphansi ngaphambi kwesikhathi, bangase futhi basuswe ngokungagunyazwa yiNdlu Yabameleli nangokuvunyelwa iSigele, futhi kuwo wonke umlando, abahluleli bahulumeni abayishumi nanhlanu baye badelelwa ngenxa yokumangalelwa kokuba bonile.
Inqubo yokungavumelani inikeza indlela yokususa amajaji ahileleke ekuziphatheni okubi kakhulu, kodwa umnyango ophakeme wokususa / ucela ukuvota kweningi eNdlu ukuba likhiphe isigwebo futhi amavoti amabili-mithathu eSigele avume isigwebo ukuze aqinisekise ukuthi amajaji awanakususwa nje ngenxa yokwenza izinqumo ezingathandeki. Lokhu kulinganisela kulondoloza ukuzimela kokwahlulela kuyilapho kunikeza ukulandisa ngokuziphatha okubi kwangempela.
Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zomphakathi NoMbuso
I - US iphethe isimiso sezinkantolo ezimbili, izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezihambisana, ngasinye sinemingcele emisiwe yemingcele. Ukuqonda lesi simiso sawo amabili kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ubulungisa obusetshenziswa ngayo e - United States.
Ukuqulwa Kwecala Okulinganiselwe
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zilinganiselwe, zingalalela amacala agunyazwe ngokuqondile uMthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho kahulumeni, futhi zisingatha amacala kahulumeni, imibuzo engokomthetho-mthetho, izimpikiswano phakathi kwezizwe, namacala ahilela umthetho kahulumeni. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zinegunya elivamile futhi zilalele izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho e - U.
Le ngxenye ibonisa isimo sikahulumeni waseMelika. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zisingatha ukumangalelwa kobugebengu okuningi, izindaba zomthetho womkhaya, izimpikiswano zesivumelwano, amacala okulimala komuntu siqu, nezinye izindaba ezilawulwa umthetho wombuso. Izinkantolo zeFederal zigxila ezindabeni zokukhathazeka kwesizwe, izindaba zomthetho sisekelo, nezimpikiswano ezihlanganisa izibopho zikahulumeni noma ezihilela izithakazelo zikahulumeni.
Ukubambisana Nokuhlanganyela
Lamagatsha amathathu — angokomthetho, abaphathi, nahluleli — asebenza esimisweni somthetho-sisekelo se "amasheke nezilinganiso," okusho ukuthi nakuba igatsha ngalinye lihlukene ngokomthetho namanye amabili, uMthetho-sisekelo udinga ukubambisana phakathi kwamagatsha. Ngokufanayo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni kumelwe zibambisana futhi zisebenzelane ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene.
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngokuvamile ziyawuchaza futhi ziwusebenzise umthetho kahulumeni, ikakhulukazi emacaleni ahilela ukubusa ngokuvumelana. Izinkantolo zamaFederal ngezinye izikhathi kumelwe zichaze umthetho kahulumeni lapho zisebenzisa ukubusa ngokwezinhlobonhlobo. Imfundiso ye-Erie idinga ukuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenzise umthetho kahulumeni ongaphansi kwezwe ukuze zithi uvela emthethweni kahulumeni (okungase kuzwakala ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphansi kombuso wokwenezela noma ukubusa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene), futhi ezimweni ezinzima izinkantolo zikahulumeni kumelwe ziqagele ukuthi inkantolo yalesosifundazwe ingayinquma kanjani lendaba noma, uma lowombuso wamukela imibuzo egunyazwelwe ezinkantolo zikahulumeni lapho umthetho ungekho mthethweni noma ungaqiniseki, zibuze inkantolo yezwe ukuba inqume lendaba.
Ithonya Lezinqumo ZeNkantolo Yomphakathi
Izinqumo zenkantolo kahulumeni zinemiphumela efinyelela kude edlulela nangaphandle kwamalungu aseduze ecaleni. Lezi zinqumo zibumba imfundiso engokomthetho, zithonye isimiso somphakathi, futhi zithinta ukuphila kwezigidi zamaMelika.
Iqhinga Nestartic Deccis
Izinkantolo eziphethe ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokubuka, okusho ukuthi "ukuma ngokwezinqumo zezindaba ezinqunyiwe" Ngaphansi kwale mfundiso, izinkantolo zilandela izenzakalo ezamiswa ezicabeni zangaphambili lapho kunqunywa izindaba ezifanayo. Lokhu kuthuthukisa ukungaguquguquki, ukubikezela nokuzinza komthetho.
Izinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni ziboshwe yizimo ezilandela izicathulo eziphezulu eziphethe. Izinkantolo zesifunda kumelwe zilandele izenzakalo zenkantolo yazo yesifunda yamacala neNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinkantolo zesifunda kumelwe zilandele izimpawu zeNkantolo Ephakeme. iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokwayo ilandela izehlakalo zayo, nakuba inegunya lokuzilawula lapho iqiniseka ukuthi isinqumo sangaphambili sasingalungile noma sasingasafaneleki.
Ukushintsha Kwezenhlalo Nezomthetho
Izinqumo zenkantolo yesifunda ziye zaba usizo ekuqhubeni ushintsho lwezenhlalo nolwezomthetho kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika. Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme Yezwe ziye zaqeda ukwahlukaniswa kwesikole, zaqaphela amalungelo amasha omthetho - sisekelo, zandisa inkululeko yomphakathi, futhi zalungisa kabusha ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni nezakhamuzi.
Lezi zinqumo ngokuvamile zikhuluma ngezindaba ezithi izishaya - mthetho azizimisele noma azikwazi ukuzixazulula, zinikeza amakhambi angokomthetho okucindezela izinkinga zomphakathi.
Ukuthatha Inyathelo Lokuqondisa Imithetho
Izinqumo zenkantolo ye-freance zithonya indlela amagatsha emithetho nezikhulu asebenza ngayo. Lapho izinkantolo zishaya imithetho noma izenzo zokuphatha njengezingekho emthethweni, ziphoqelela amagatsha ezombangazwe ukuba abukeze izindlela zawo zokuhlola. Lapho izinkantolo zichaza imithetho ethile ngezindlela ezithile, uMkhandlu ungasabela ngokulahla umthetho ukuze ucacise injongo yawo noma ushintshe umphumela.
Izinqumo zenkantolo ziqondisa nezinhlangano eziphethe ekusebenziseni imithetho nezimiso, zinikeze izincazelo ezinegunya zezimfuneko ezingokomthetho nokulinganiselwa komthetho - sisekelo.
Izinselele Nokugxeka Kwesimiso SeNkantolo Kahulumeni
Nakuba isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni siye saphumelela ngokuphawulekayo ezicini eziningi, sibhekana nezinselele ezihlukahlukene nokugxekwa okudinga ukucatshangelwa.
Ukukhathazeka Ngokuthatha Icala Ekwahluleleni
Abagxeki ngezinye izikhathi basola amajaji kahulumeni "izenzo zomthetho"" ." Ukwenza izinqumo ezisekelwe ekukhetheni komuntu siqu kunokuchaza umthetho ngokwethembeka. Laba bagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi amajaji angakhethwanga naphila akumelwe enze izinqumo zezimiso ezifanele zabameleli abakhethiwe.
Abalweli benkululeko yokwahlulela bathi ngezinye izikhathi amajaji kumelwe enze izinqumo ezinzima ezivikela amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo ngisho nalapho lezo zinqumo zingathandwa.
Izimpikiswano Ezikhona Phakathi Nesikhathi Sokuphila
Kukhona abagxeki bokuphila konke abathi ukuphila kwabo konke kubangela ukuba amajaji ahlale ezikhundleni zawo isikhathi eside kunaleso okufanele ahlale kuso — ngemva kokuba esemdala kakhulu ukuba angenza umsebenzi wawo kahle, kungaba ngenxa nje yobudala noma ngenxa yokuthi awazi lutho ngezikhathi zanamuhla, futhi mhlawumbe laba bagxeki bathi, amajaji kufanele amiswe iminyaka emisiwe, iminyaka engu - 14, kuya kwengu - 14 noma engu - 18 (eminyakeni engu - 18) engenathuba lokuphinde amiswe kabusha.
Abasekeli bokuphila konke baphikisa ngokuthi kubalulekile ukuze kube nenkululeko yokwahlulela, kuvumele amajaji ukuba enze izinqumo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindiselwa kwezombangazwe. Lempikiswano iyaqhubeka, nakuba ushintsho olunjengalolu ngokuqinisekile luyodinga ukuncishiswa komthetho - sisekelo, futhi ithuba lokwenzeka kwalo lincane kakhulu.
Ukufinyelela Ebulungiseni Nasezingcindezini Ezigcwele Izinkinga
Lezi zinkantolo zibhekene nezingcindezi ezinkulu, lapho kuqulwa izinkulungwane zamacala unyaka ngamunye. Lo mqulu ungaholela ekulibaleni ecaleni futhi ukhathazeke ngokuthi zonke izigebengu zithola ukunakekelwa okwanele yini emacaleni azo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izindleko zemali kahulumeni zingavimbela abantu abaningi, kuphakame imibuzo mayelana nokufinyelela kobulungisa okulinganayo.
UKhongolose luzame ukuxazulula lezi zinkathazo ngezinyathelo ezihlukahlukene, kuhlanganise nokumisa ezinye izinqubo zokwahlulela, ukukhuthaza ezinye izinqumo, nokuhlela izinqubo ezilandelanayo. Nokho, ukulinganisela isidingo sokucabangela amacala ngokucophelela kanye nesidingo sesinqumo esifike ngesikhathi kuseyinselele eqhubekayo.
Izinkantolo EziwuFederal Esimisweni Somthetho - sisekelo Obanzi
Ukuhlukana kwemibuso kuyindlela eyinhloko uhulumeni wethu alinganisela ngayo amandla ukuze ingxenye ethile kahulumeni ingehlula omunye, futhi umqondo uwukuthi igatsha ngalinye likahulumeni linezindima zalo siqu nezindawo zegunya.
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinesikhundla esikhethekile kulesi simiso samagatsha ahlukene. Ngokungafani namagatsha emithetho nezikhulu, alandisa ngokuqondile kubavoti ngokhetho, igatsha lokwahlulela lithola ukufaneleka kwalo ngokuzimela kwalo nokuzimisela kwalo ukunquma amacala ngokwemithetho kunokuba likhethe ngokwezombangazwe.
Amaphekula Amandla Okwahlulela
Nakuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinamandla abalulekile, zingaphansi kokuhlola okubalulekile okuvela kwamanye amagatsha. uMkhandlu uphethe amandla abalulekile phezu kwejaji, kuhlanganise negunya lokwakha nokuhlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphansi kweNkantolo Ephakeme, njengoba kuchazwe eSiphakamisweni III, futhi uKhongolo unawo namandla okuchaza nokulinganisela ukubusa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni.
UKhongolo lulawula uhlelo lwezinkantolo zikahulumeni, lunquma inani lamajaji, futhi lungakhipha amajaji ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi. UMongameli umisa amajaji kahulumeni, athonye iHlelo lejaji nesiqondiso salo ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Lokhu kuhlola ukuthi igatsha lokwahlulela lihlala linesibopho sokwenza imisebenzi yalo ngaphakathi komthetho-sisekelo kuyilapho lilondoloza inkululeko eyanele ukuze lifeze imisebenzi yalo.
Ukuncika Kwamankantolo Kwamanye Amagatsha
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zincike egatsheni eliphethe ukuze ziqinise izinqumo zazo. Izinkantolo zingakhipha iziyalezo nezahlulelo, kodwa azinawo amandla okuziphoqelela ngokuqondile. Igatsha eliphethe linomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa izahlulelo nezinqumo zezinkantolo zikahulumeni, futhi lo msebenzi uhlanganisa ukukhipha iziyalezo zenkantolo nemithetho ehambisana nomthetho ezikhungweni neminyango engokomthetho.
Lokhu kuncika kudala ishekethi lombuso wokwahlulela − amacala kumelwe akhiphe izinqumo igatsha eliphethe elizozihlonipha futhi lizibophe. Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, kuye kwaba nobunzima ngezikhathi ezithile lapho izikhulu eziphethe bezingabaza ukuphoqelela iziyalezo zenkantolo, ziqokomisa ukuncika ngokuphelele kwezinkantolo ekuxhumeni kwamanye amagatsha.
Ikusasa Lamankantolo Ase - Federal
Njengoba umphakathi waseMelika uqhubeka uguqula, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zizobhekana nezinselele ezintsha namathuba amasha. Intuthuko yezomthetho iphakamisa imibuzo enzima mayelana nokuzimela, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile, kanye nempahla yolwazi. Ukushintsha kwesimo sengqondo somphakathi kudala imfuneko yokuchazwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo amasha. Ukuhlangana kwembulunga yonke kuveza izimpikiswano ezihilela umthetho wezwe lonke nezimpikiswano ezibhekene nemingcele.
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni kuyodingeka zizivumelanise nalezizimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho zilondoloza imisebenzi yazo eyinhloko yokuchaza umthetho, ukuvikela amalungelo, nokuhlola amandla kahulumeni. Ukulinganisela phakathi kokuzimela kokwahlulela nokulandisa ngentando yeningi kuyoqhubeka kuphikiswana, njengoba kuyodingeka ukuba kube nemibuzo ngendima efanele yezinkantolo ekusingatheni izinkinga zezenhlalo.
Ukuqonda Izinkantolo Ezizimele: Kubalulekile Ukuze Uhlanganyele Eqenjini
Ukuqonda indlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezisebenza ngayo kubalulekile ukuze sibe isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Izinqumo zenkantolo yamaFederal zithinta cishe zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika, kusukela emalungelweni esiwajabulelayo kuya emithethweni okumelwe siyilandele.
Izakhamuzi eziqonda isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni zihlonyiselwe kangcono ukuba zihlanganyele ekubuseni kwentando yeningi, ukusekela amalungelo azo, nokubheka uhulumeni njengonecala. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi zikhonza ezinkantolo, zilandela amacala aphawulekayo, noma zimane ziqonde indlela izingxabano ezingokomthetho ezixazululwa ngayo, ukwazi izinkantolo zikahulumeni kuthuthukisa ukubophelana kwezentando yeningi futhi kuqinise izinhlangano zentando yeningi.
Kulabo abanesithakazelo sokufunda okwengeziwe ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni, i- ye-United Courts website inikeza ukwaziswa okubanzi ngesakhiwo senkantolo, izinqubo, nentuthuko zamanje. Iwebhusayithi esemthethweni yeNkantolo [ inikeza ukufinyelela kwemibono, izimpikiswano zomlomo, nolwazi ngomsebenzi weNkantolo. Imithombo yemfundo evela ezinhlanganweni ezinjengeSikhungo semfundo [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] Judicial Learnial Learning Center [[ isiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde indlela izinkantolo ezisebenza ngayo futhi sizathu esibaluleke kakhulu.
Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kwezinkantolo Zesizwe
INkantolo Ephakeme inendima ebalulekile esimisweni somthetho - sisekelo sikahulumeni wethu, futhi okokuqala, njengenkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni, iyinkantolo yokugcina efuna ubulungisa. Lokhu kuphawula kusebenza kabanzi kakhulu kuso sonke isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni, esisebenza njengomlondolozi wezimiso zomthetho - sisekelo namalungelo omuntu ngamanye.
Indima yezinkantolo zikahulumeni waseMelika idlulela ngalé kokunquma amacala. Lezi zinkantolo zichaza uMthetho-sisekelo, zihlola amandla amagatsha ezombangazwe, zivikela amalungelo amancane, ziqinisekisa ukusebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni okufanayo, futhi zinikeza indawo yokuxazulula izingxabano ngokuthula ngokomthetho kunokuba ziphoqelelwe. Izinqumo zazo ziguqula ukukhula komthetho nomphakathi waseMelika, zithonya yonke into kusukela emalungelweni omphakathi kuya enqubweni yezomnotho ukuya ekwahluleleni komthetho womthetho womthetho.
Isakhiwo sesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni − kanye namazinga ayo amathathu, izinkantolo ezikhethekile, kanye nobubanzi bayo obuchazwe ngokucophelela − kuveza ukuhlakanipha kwabaHluleli ekudaleni igatsha lokwahlulela elizimele kodwa elinamandla kodwa eliphoqelelwe. Isivikelo esinikezwa abahluleli bezwe, kuhlanganise nokuphila nokuvikela kokuphila, siqinisekisa ukuthi bangazenza izinqumo ezisekelwe emthethweni nesimiso kunokuba bacindezele noma isithakazelo somuntu siqu.
Njengoba i-United States iqhubeka iguqula futhi ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziyohlala zibalulekile ekulondolozeni ukubusa komthetho nokuvikela uhulumeni womthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda lezinkantolo “‘ izinhlelo zazo, amandla azo, ukulinganiselwa kwazo, nendima yazo esimisweni somthetho sisekelo obanzi, kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni idemokrasi yaseMelika ngokwayo. I-jaji likahulumeni liyisivumelwano senani elihlala njalo lezinkantolo ezizimele emphakathini okhululekile, futhi ukuqina kwazo okuqhubekayo kubalulekile ekulondolozeni amalungelo nenkululeko echaza ukuzama kweMelika uqobo.