Umqondo Wakuqala: Ifilosofi Yesisekelo Yokuchaza Umthetho - sisekelo

Umthetho wobuqaba uyifilosofi engokomthetho ephethe incazelo yombhalo woMthetho-sisekelo omiswe ngesikhathi sokumiswa kwayo. Kunokuba iphathe lencwadi njengethuluzi eliphilayo elisusa izindinganiso zomphakathi, osoqobo baphikisa ngokuthi amajaji kufanele achaze uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala yomphakathi . ukuqonda ukuthi umuntu onengqondo wayeyoba nayo ngesikhathi esamukeleka. Lokhu kuthatha isisekelo sokulungisa inkululeko yangaphakathi, kuthonya yonke into emalungelo eyimfihlo okungamelwe iqondiswe, futhi kusuka ekukhulumeni ngenkululeko yokulwa kwezikhali, futhi kusuka ekusebenziseni inkululeko yomthetho womthetho womthetho ngokomlando. Ngokulawula imibandela emisha, ukuqashela imibandela emisha nokungaqondisisa amalungelo emfundweni.

Impikiswano ngokulandelana kobuqambiselana ayiyona nje imfundo. Inemiphumela yangempela yendlela izinkantolo ezivikela ngayo inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ngokuphanjwa uhulumeni. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi ubuSulumane bunikeza uhlelo oluqinile noluqinisekile lokukhipha inkululeko yomphakathi, buvimbela abahluleli ukuba bafunde izintando zabo zomthetho womuntu siqu kuMthetho-sisekelo. Abagxeki baphikisana ngokuthi ubuStatu bungaqina, buvala imibono ephelelwe yisikhathi futhi buhluleke ukuveza intuthuko yezenhlalo. Ngenxa yalokho, ubuShonada buye baba induku eMbusweni Ophakeme yokuqinisekisa iNkantolo, ulwazi olungokomthetho, notshani buthatha isinyathelo sokuthuthukisa indima yalo ekwakheni inkululeko yomphakathi kubaluleke kakhulu kunoma ubani onesithakazelo ekuthuthukise amalungelo eMelika.

Umsuka Wemicabango Yokuqala

Inkolelo-msuka njengenkolelo-lwazi ebizwa ngokuthi inkolelo-lwazi yavela ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka, kodwa izimpande zayo zokuhlakanipha zibuyela emuva ekuFunisweni. Amajaji eNkantolo yakuqala ePhakade njengeSikhulu i-John Marshall, ngokuvamile asebenzisa izinhloso zabaHluleli lapho bechaza amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo. Ngo-1970 no 1980, njengoba iNkantolo yandisa amalungelo ngaphansi kwe-Warren ne Burger Courts, izazi ezingokwezemithetho eziqinile njengoRobert Bork noAnto Scalia zashoda inhloso ehlelekile kakhulu yokuhlehlisa inhloso ukuze bathathele emuva lokho ababekubona njengezenzo zokwahlulela. iScalia, ikakhulukazi, i-Sctalia, isekelwe ekuqondeni kwencazelo engokomthetho engokomlando futhi isiza ekuchazeni okungoko ngokomthetho. [FLT:] [FLD] [F:] [FFT]]] [3], ukuphikisa okumelwe kuqondwe kwemisweni kwendlela yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho

Incazelo Yokuqala

Imicu emibili yokuqala ye-Framers. Inhloso yokuqala nencazelo yokuqala iveza okuhlukile kwenkululeko yomphakathi. Inhloso yokuqala ibheke ezinjongweni eziqondile nasezinkolelweni zamaFramers. Ngokwesibonelo, umahluleli osebenzisa injongo yokuqala angase abuze: UJames Madison wacabangani ngeSibili Isichibiyeli? Ngokungafani, incazelo yokuqala ibuza ukuthi isakhamuzi esivamile esingo1791 siyoqonda kanjani ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izinga lokuphatha izingalo. Indlela yamuva izuze i-trakitited, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuthi igwema inkinga yemibono eminingi ye-framers futhi ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuthi ihambisana nenani lomthetho-lawulo lohlelo. [FLT:] i-BT] i-Barvomston eston eswokuqala, ishoshosho ukuthi i-BExmotion.[FLT]

Lezimpikiswano ezicatshangelwayo aziyona nje imfundo. Zithonya indlela abameli ababheka ngayo inkululeko yomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, emkhakheni wamalungelo okukhuluma, umsunguli wezomlando angase abheke ekuqondeni okungokomlando “inkululeko yokukhuluma” ngo-1791, eyayihlanganisa isivikelo sokunqanda ukunqanda ukuvukela umbuso kodwa ivumele isijeziso sokuvukela umbuso. Umuntu ongeyena owaqalayo angase agxile enjongweni yokukhuluma ngokukhululekile emphakathini wentando yeningi noma indima yokukhuluma ngokuzimela ngokwakhe. Ukukhetha kwendlela yokuchaza kunganquma umphumela wendaba, ikakhulukazi uma ubuchwepheshe obusha noma inqubo yezenhlalo ingekho ibalazwe eliyilile emikhubeni engokomlando.

Ithonya Lobufandamentali Embukisweni Wezwe Oyinkululeko

Ukuthathela phambili kuye kwaguqula inkululeko yomphakathi ngezindlela ezizitshelwe nezimangalisayo. Nakuba ngokuvamile ihlobene nemiphumela engaguquki − njengokunciphisa ukukhishwa kwesisu noma amalungelo andayo esibhamu — iye yasetshenziselwa futhi ukuthethelela isivikelo esiqinile senkululeko yokukhuluma, inkululeko engokwenkolo, namalungelo empahla. Ngezansi kuyizici eziyinhloko ezibonisa indima yobusunguli ekuthuthukiseni umthetho wenkululeko yomphakathi.

Inkululeko Yezomnotho Nenkathi Entsha Yokuqala

Phambi kwe-New Deal, iNkantolo Ephakeme yazilahla njalo izimiso zezomnotho ngokunxusa ukuba ziqonde kuqala i-Century Procession ne-Chomest Claus. Lochner v. New York [1950], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni olinganisela amahora asebenzayo okubhaka wesivumelwano owenziwa yiSiphendulo se-GrayCemeter ne-Centu. [kusukela ku-3] I-Centullston u-Foctiveright mentine , uthembele ezicilongwenini ezimayelaneni zezentengiselwano ekhululekile. [kuhlele u-Hund , u-193] i-New Factory umbiko weNkadentia ngokukhuza izigwebo zomthetho wakuqala we-omposom, ukuthi uyaqhubeka yini u-Herfrenceston eMvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuziweyo. [kust] ku-ouhlu lomthetho wakuqala] ku

Amalungelo Ezibhamu NeSichibiyelo Sesibili

Akukho ngxenye yenkululeko yomphakathi eye yabunjwa ngokuqondile yi-FOLN[FFON][12] futhi kamuva [iSichibiyelo Sesibili se-Remende]. Emashumini eminyaka, ukuguqulwa kwaqondwa kabanzi ukuvikela ilungelo elihlangene kuphela elihlangene nenkonzo yobusosha. Kodwa umfundi wezomthetho, ikakhulukazi uprofesa we- SANford [[FLT]] [[FLT]][FLT][1] [fun [1] futhi kamuva [ngendlela yokuqala] [indlela] ye-v [imithetho] ehlangene ne-FLT] [FLT] [indlela] [ihlukene] [imithetho], lapho inguquactive [irg], lapho inguququastssss inguquary ye-Scoult, isekela khona i-Scegoult. [intshiast, i-Spective, i-Spective, i-Spective i-Spect, ekholish, ehlelwe yi-S

Amalungelo Okuzala NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Impikiswano yamalungelo okukhipha isisu inikeza umehluko omkhulu phakathi kombhalo wokuqala nophila ngemithetho-sisekelo ethatha izinyathelo. Roe v. Wade [773], iNkantolo yathola ilungelo elidumile lokukhipha isisu ngaphansi kwe-Thective Proced Clausle(a lilungile lingaphathwa ngokuqondile embhalweni. UMahluleli u-Harry Blackmun uthembele emqondweni we-[FOF:] [FFF:3] inqubo yokwahlulela i-oms, kanye ne-“impikiswano” yokukhipha i-esomthethweni eGrisw v. Conneticut [1955], eyayingavuma ilungelo lokuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela igesa.[Fose, iziphethonsi zezimiso zomthetho ezingoko hlelo lokuqala ze-buhlanga] [Fose, i-Huption:[Fose, iziphaka, iziphaka, iziphakalome zesigaba esiyisisekelo sesizwe] [Fose, [Fose]

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nomngcele Wentsha

Ukukhululeka komthetho we-practism futhi kuye kwathonya imfundiso yokukhuluma, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezihilela ukukhuluma kuyi-nternet noma kwezinye imithombo yezindaba emisha. Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union (1997), iNkantolo yabulala iNkantolo yokuThululana, kodwa amajaji agwema ukuhlaziya okusuka kokuqala ngenxa yokuthi abalawuli be-i-i-ibhujikitorythrist bengeke balindele ukuba i-ibhulomelo. Izenzakalo zamuva, Phackingham v. [Foct:] iNyakatho[FLT][FLT:] [2017], iqaphele kakhulu imithombo yezokuxhumana njengomphakathi wanamuhla ngenxa ye-um, kodwa ukucabanga kweNkathi yeNkanto engokobuko yezimiso zomphakathi ezingokwemvelo, ingeyezinye isigaba esingokwesiphekuphekuncane, i-iphiconson, i-iphicode iyaqhubeka kakhulu, i-kelele uku

Ukuqalwa Kwenkolo Emzamweni Womphakathi Osabalele

Ngaphandle kwecala ngalinye, ukukholelwa enkantolo kuqala kuye kwathonya amasu ezinhlangano zenkululeko yomphakathi, inzuzo engokomthetho, namaqembu okulawula. I-American Civil Liberations Union (ACLU), ehlangene ngokomlando nokuphila komthetho-sisekelo, eminyakeni yamuva nje iye yasebenzisa izimpikiswano zokuqala ezindaweni ezithile, njengokukhuluma ngokukhululekile emakolishi nasekwakhiweni kwenkululeko yomthetho-mthetho wezentengiselwano. Ngokwesibonelo, i-ACLU iphikise ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yeSikhawulo se-Angleitmentation inqabela ukubulawa kwezingane nezingalawuleki kakhulu. Ngokufanayo, i-Cato Institute ne- Institute yeJaji yeSikole ngokuvamile isebenzisa ukuthuthukisa amalungelo ezomnotho nempahla yomthetho. Lokhu kusetshenziswa kwenkululeko yokuqala kuveza amandla ayo njengethuluzi elingokomthetho nethuluzi elihlangene kakhulu nezezezezombangazwe.

Inkululeko Engokwenkolo Nencazelo Yasekuqaleni Yokuvivinya Umzimba

I-Free Exespect Classiale yeSichibiyelo sokuqala ibiyindawo yokulwa nencazelo yokuqala. Employment Division v. Smith (1990), umbono kaMahluleli uScalia wawuthi ukungathathi hlangothi, imithetho esebenzayo ngokuvamile ayiphuli i-Free Specience Claus, ngisho noma ithwesa imisebenzi engokwenkolo. [[FLT:][FT]] [FT] [5] Izindlela zobukhomba-mthetho ezithi abefundisi abakwazi ukuveza incazelo eqinile yemithetho engokomthetho. Isinqumo siveza indlela eqinile engokomthetho egunyazakhelwe ngayo i-Alctive Free Religioctive Active Active Act. [FF] [F4] iveza i-Activemounces producences of Mounces] ku-Arc(10] ye-10, kodwa i-10, ephumayohluphonsitudensi :[12] ye-F] ye-Ex

Izimo Nokulinganiselwa Kobuqalo Ekubeni Nenkululeko Yomphakathi

Naphezu kwethonya layo, ukuqamba kwakuqala kubhekene nokucusumbulwa okukhulu okuvela kuzazi nakudokotela. Okunye ukukholelwa kokuqala kungokokuthi kungasetshenziselwa ukuthethelela isimo sokucwaswa komlando. Incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo evikelekile, ivumela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga, futhi inqabela abesifazane ilungelo lokuvota. Abameli baphendula ngokuthi ukulungisa okufana nokushintsha kweshumi elinesine neshumi elinesine neshumi elinesine kwaguqula incazelo yalawo malungiselelo, futhi leyo mfundiso yakuqala ayigcini lapho umbhalo unikeza khona ukungabi nabulungisa lapho umbhalo unikeza khona isimiso esibanzi. Kodwa ubunzima obungokwesiko bokuguqula umthetho busho ukuthi ubusekela bungaguqula izithakazelo ezinkonzweni ezimbalwa ezithakazelweni zezenhlalo.

Inkinga Yokukholelwa Emahlombe Kamlando

Enye i-critique ingukuthi ukuphikisana komlando kuncike ekutheni inkolelo yokuqala isekelwe ekutheni isekelwe ekutheni izibalo zikhona. Izazimlando eziningi zingafunda ubufakazi obufanayo futhi zifinyelele iziphetho ezihlukene ngokuphathelene nencazelo yokuqala. IHeller[, ngokwesibonelo, ukuphikisana kwe-Jaji uStevens kuphikisa ukuthi umlando usekela umbono osekelwe kumabunjini, hhayi umbono kaScalia ofanele umuntu ngamunye. Ukuthi uqobo lunikeza injongo, indlela yokungathathi hlangothi ivuleka kanjalo ukuba ingangatshazwa. Ngokwesiko, abahluleli basebenzisa ukuhlaziya okungoko umlando ukuze bafinyelele imiphumela yabo evumelana nemibono yabo yangaphambili. Lokhu kuye kwaholela abanye ekubizeni ukusekela kokuqala kwezombangazwe. Nokho, abaqondisi bokuqala ukuthi noma yiziphi izincazelo zemfundiso zingasetshenziswa, futhi nobuhle bayo baqamba umlando wokuqala.

Ukudabuka Nokushintsha Komphakathi

Inkululeko yomphakathi ivame ukuhloselwe ukuvikela amaqembu ancishisiwe ekucindezeleni kobushiqela. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ubuKhomanisi, obubheke phambili, bungahluleka ukuvikela amalungelo avelayo njengomshado oxhunyiwe, ubulili, noma ubumfihlo bemivo. Obergefell v. Hodges [2015], iNkanto eqapheleka ukuthi umshado owengeziwe ngaphansi kweSimo sobugqizi, kodwa iSikhungo sika-Claus Calaus esiqinile, kodwa uMahlulele Scalia ngokuphikisanayo waphikisa ukuthi akukho lutho ngencazelo yokuqala ye-145th Isichibiyeli efuna ukuqashelwa okunjalo. Abaningi, okubhalwe nguMahluleli kaKennedy, basebenzisa ukucabanga ukuthi ukwakheka komthetho kanye nesithunzi. Abagxekishoshoshoshoshoshoshoshozi ukuncika kwemithetho.[4]

Ukuhlehliswa Kwanamuhla: Ukuqalwa Kwakuqala NeNkantolo Ephakeme Yanamuhla

Namuhla, ubuKhomanisi buyikhoshana eNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinqumo eziyisithupha kweziyisishiyagalolunye zamajaji ``Quance', Samuel Alance Thomas, Samuel Alto, Neil Gormoth, Brett Kavataugh, Amy Coney Barrett, noJohn Roberts" ziveze amadegreendish omfutho wesifungo. Izinqumo zeNkanto eMbuko [[FORT] ezisemqoka] [FLT] ezihlukene. ISifundazwe se-FORN] [FLT], futhi [FLT] ifuna ukuvika okukhulu ukucunyuselwa komthetho womlando, lapho izama khona ukudunyiswa kweminye inseko. [FT][6] [FFT] [FLT]

Ukuqalwa Kwabantu Kunye Nenkululeko Yangaphakathi Ezinkantolo Ezingezansi

Ngaphezu kweNkantolo Ephakeme, ukubusa komthetho kusetshenziswa kakhulu abahluleli besifunda nohulumeni. Abaningi bangababhali bamajaji oqobo noma baye baqeqeshwa ngezindlela zokuqala ezikoleni zomthetho njenge Harvard, Yale, noma iYunivesithi yaseChicago. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuvukeleni kwemithetho enzima, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, namapulatifomu ezenhlalo ezindaweni zokuqala. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo eziningi eziphansi ziye zathembela Bruen[ ukubulala imingcele yezibhamu ezithintelayo, njengemigodi nezindawo zomphakathi. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, abanye abahluleli bezenziwa ukuba basebenzise ukubusa kombuso wezembutho, njengasekuhlanganiseni imfundiso ephakeme, noma ukususa izikhulu zegatsha. Izikhulu zezokuqala ukubuyisa ukuphatha izigwebo, izikhulu zesifunda zezomthetho nezinhlangano zezomphakathi, izikhulu zikahulumeni zezehlwine.

Imithombo Yangaphandle Yokuhlola Okuqhubekayo

Abafundi abanesithakazelo sokungena emanzini kakhulu bangase bathole lezi zinto ezilandelayo ziwusizo:

  • [[QT:0] Isikhungo somthetho-sisekelo sesizwe inikeza umongo we-Expactive Constitution nemibono yokuqala kuleyo nombolo: Umthetho-sisekelo osebenzayo [.
  • [[UMTL:0] Oyez.org unikeza amaphini agcwele amacala kanye nama-pyround empikiswano, kuhlanganise nasemacaleni amaningi axoxwe ngawo: [ Oyez[.
  • Uprofesa womthetho unikeza imfundiso yenkolo yenkululeko yomphakathi enethonya: [[FLT: 1] iPrinceton University Prince.
  • [[QULT:0][[FLT] izimpikiswano zokuqala njalo futhi zikhipha izihloko ezisebenza: Fateralist Society[.
  • Ukuze uthole umbono obucayi, bheka [[FLT: 0] Erwin Chemerinsky's Impikiswano ku-Information Intent[[FLT]], etholakala ngokubukeza okuningi komthetho.

Isiphetho

Ukuqala ukwakhiwa kwenkululeko yangaphakathi kuye kwathonya kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni impikiswano yenkululeko yomphakathi. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, iye yasetshenziselwa ukwandisa amalungelo kwezinye izindawo (njengezibhamu) nokuhlanganisa ezinye (njengokukhipha isisu). Ngokusekela incazelo yomphakathi wokuqala, ukusungula kunikeza indlela ethi ilinganisela ukunquma kokwahlulela nokuzilawula kwentando yeningi. Nakuba impikiswano phakathi komthetho wokuqala nomthetho wezomthetho wezwe ingenakuxazululwa, imiphumela yenkululeko yakuqala ikhona. Ukuqonda umlando wayo, nokwenyukela kwayo kuye kwashintsha ngokulandelana nomthetho wezomthetho wezomthetho wezentando yeningi.

Njengoba ubuqali buqhubeka buhlela izinkantolo nomsebenzi ongokomthetho, indima yalo ehlwini lomphakathi iyohlala iyinto yempikiswano enzima. Noma umuntu eyibheka njengesivikelo ekuphathweni yijaji noma isithiyo sobulungisa, inguquko yokuqala iye yawushintsha unomphela umehluko wenkululeko yomphakathi. Imibuzo ephakamayo (i-‘ngemibhalo, umlando, nendima efanele yejaji) ekulingeni kwezwe laseMelika okuqhubekayo kwesimiso somthetho wentando yeningi.