Ukuqonda Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Wezwe Ekumangalelweni Komphakathi Ngobala

Umthetho olawulayo wesimiso sokuzivikela kombuso uyimfundiso eyisisekelo evikela ekumangalelweni ezinkantolo zikahulumeni noma zikahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume. Isekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye somthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., lesisi sokuzivikela silondoloza ubukhosi nokuzinza kombuso. Nokho, ukusebenza kwayo emphakathini okunikeza izinkonzo ezibalulekile njengamanzi, ugesi, igesi yemvelo, kanye ne-temthenamet metationsssss metacisionssssssss provision. Uma isesimweni somphakathi, isebenza, noma ilawulwa kakhulu yizwe, umbuzo wokuthi i-ethoff ingaletha intengo yokulimaza noma ukukhulula okusebenzayo, noma ukuguqula noma yini ukuvikela ukuzivikela kombuso noma ukunqaba. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlolwa kwesimiso somphakathi, isihluthulelo, isihluthulelo, nezinkombanomba esobala, nezinqululeki, izisekelo, nezinqulu olusebenzayo, nezishaya umthetho, nezishayamthetho.

Umsuka KaMbusi Kahulumeni Nokuma Kwawo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye, esagunyazwa ngo-1795, sinikeza ukuthi “iSiphendulo sokwahlulela sase-United States ngeke sithathwe njengokwenabela noma isiphi isambatho somthetho noma ukulingana, siqaliswe noma siqulwe noma simangalelwe omunye wase-United States yizakhamuzi zezwe elithile, noma yizakhamuzi noma iZiquagences zanoma yisiphi iZwe.” Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme ichaze lokhu kulunga okubanzi, ibambe ukuthi izifundazwe ziyazivikela ezihlakeni ezingeni ezile amaqembu azimele enkantolo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ziyizakhamuzi zase-Chuletubest. Lokhu kugobe kunweba izinhlangano zikahulumeni nezindawo ezisebenza njengezindawo zikahulumeni." Imfundiso ayisho lutho, njengoba uMkhandlu wesizwe encintiswayo ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile, futhi ingenza ukugobe ngokuzikhethela kwemvume yokuzingamelwa kwenga, ukuthi ihlelwe yinhlangano yengalo yomphakathi.

Isu lokuvikela uhulumeni ekugonyelweni kwesimiso sobukhosi busekelwe ezimisweni zobuzwe nobukhosi bombuso. Amazwe anelungelo lokubusa izindaba zawo ngaphandle kokungenela okungafanele ezinkantolo zikahulumeni noma emacaleni azimele. Ukuvumela amasutu kumelane nombuso ngaphandle kwemvume yawo kungafaka engozini izimali zomphakathi futhi kuphazamise imisebenzi kahulumeni. Nokho, lokhu kuvikela kungadala isithiyo kubantu abalimala yizikhungo ezikhungethwe uhulumeni, njengasezimweni zokuphuma kwamandla aqhubekayo, amanzi angcolile, noma izakhiwo zegesi ezingaphephile. Ukuqonda imingcele yesimiso sokuzivikela kombuso kudingekile kunoma ubani ohileleke ekusebenziseni inzuzo yomphakathi.

Izindawo Zomphakathi Nokuhlaziywa Kwesizwe

Akuwona wonke amathuluzi omphakathi aphathwa ngokulinganayo ngaphansi kokuzivikela komthetho. Umehluko oyinhloko utholakala ekutheni isisebenzi siyi “isandla sikahulumeni” noma isisebenzi esizimele esingaphansi kwesimiso sombuso. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukuhlolwa kobuningi bemali ukuze zinqume ukuthi inzuzo ikhona yini esebenzayo yokuvikeleka. Izici ezicatshangelwa ukuthi zihlanganisa: izinga lokulawula kwezwe phezu kwendawo, injongo yento (i-mongosi. propirietary) noma inzuzo kahulumeni, inzuzo yemali nenkululeko yezimali, nokuthi isahlulelo esimelene nento entweni egcinwe emnikelweni kahulumeni. I-tooggggggney (i-ogconf) ayikhokhiswanga ngokusemthethweni. I-ognoteds, kodwa ayisebenzi ehhovisi elinguhulumeni noma i-senkampatho (njengomnyango we-ograngesss) ngenxa ye-ounicento ewumbuso wonke (inter) kodwa i-ged) i-evividuze i-ged ye-octive, kodwa ayisebenzi kakhulu, futhi ayisebenzi kakhulu, futhi

Izindawo Ezinkulu Zokuxhumana: Ukwehluleka Okuqondile

Uma i-operatence ilawulwa ngokuqondile yizwe noma isetshenziswa yisinye sezigaba zayo zezombangazwe, ukuvikeleka kombuso kuvame ukuvalwa emacaleni enkantolo kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yaseNyakatho Carolina iye yathi iSizwe iPorts Authority ayivikelekile ngenxa yokuthi imisebenzi yayo inguhulumeni. Ngokufanayo, iTennessee Vallee Authority (VA) iyinhlangano elawulwa yizwe ejabulela ukuvikela ukuvikela kombuso, nakuba uhulumeni ukuzivikela kombuso kuhlukene. Ezingeni likahulumeni, izimiso eziningi zamanzi omphakathi, i-masisi, i-ocesteringternetic syternetic sy, nezifunda zendawo ziphathwa njengezikhali zikahulumeni. Ngisho noma inkantolo ikhona, imvume yokukhomba inkantolo ingathola ugesi ozokwazi ukuvikela izisulu uma izimali ezingenisenjongweni futhi ikhona.

Izici Zangasese Ziyaqondiswa Umbuso

Imishini ehlukene, kuhlanganise nezinkampani ezinkulu ezizibekelele iPUC. I-Pucrae ebizwa ngokuthi i-Duke Energy, i-Pacific Gas & ugesi, noma i-Dominion Energy, azivikelwanga ukuzivikela kombuso. Ziyizinhlangano ezihlukene ezingokomthetho ezisebenza ngokulawula amandla e-propritary, ngisho noma zilawulwa kakhulu i-PUC. Umthetho owenzelwe ukuvikela izinhlangano zomuntu siqu ezimele isifundazwe. Ngakho, umthetho owenziweyo awuwukhonzile ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwesimiso sokuvikela (esivikela isifunda ngokwaso) noma ukuphula imithetho yezelulekwa. Nokho, i-S.

Izindawo Ezihlukile Embusweni Wombuso Ezicashile Emacaleni Ezingane

Naphezu kwesivikelo esikhulu sokuzivikela kobukhosi, izikhulu eziningana ezimisiwe zivumela amaphethiloli ukuba adlulise izinsimbi ezifakiwe kuhulumeni ezisezimweni ezithile. Ukuqonda lokhu kushiyana kubaluleke kakhulu kubameli abafuna ukubeka izinhlangano zomphakathi icala.

Udonga Oluyisivikelo Oluvela Embusweni

Izwe lingase livume ngokuzithandela ukuquliswa ngokumiswa komthetho onqanda ukuvinjelwa komthetho. Izifunda eziningi ziye zamisa izenzo zokuzisholo ezivumela amasudi alinganiselwe ngokumelene nezinhlangano ezithile zikahulumeni ukuze zikwazi ukuveza izingozi, ngokuvamile zibekwe ezikhonkwaneni zokukhokhwa nokuqaphela okuqinile. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Tort Apenties Act (Gav. Code 76 810 et seq.) ivumela ukumangalela izinhlangano zomphakathi, kuhlanganise nezindawo ezihlolwe amanzi, ukulimala okubangelwa yisimo esiyingozi sempahla yomphakathi. Nokho, ngokuvamile ama-raveter ancincane (* angase akhiphe ukuvuleka izinqumo ezinqumweni zomthetho noma ekusebenzeni komphakathi lapho umbuso uhulumeni usebenza khona ezindaweni zawo zombuso. Uma umbuso usungula inhlangano yomphakathi namandla okuphatha “ienyusi, futhi uthenwa, ungenza ulimi oluncishiswe.

Inhlangano Ixoshwa Ngaphansi KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

UKhomishane ungathola imvume yokuvikela uhulumeni ngokusemthethweni lapho usebenza ngaphansi kwamandla awo ukuphoqelela iSichibiyelo seshumi nane (umz., ukuqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo noma inqubo efanele). Lokhu kuyafaneleka uma kuchazwa ukuthi i-partioff i-regiodice ye-odoctive esemthethweni yezenzo ze-octive ye-octive ye-octive.[5] Ngokushosho ukuthi izenzo zomthetho ziphula ilungelo lomthetho. [[FFFF:] [Ngokwesibonelo, uma isici somphakathi sinqanyulwa inkonzo emakhaya ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, i-U.22], ukuvikela ngaphansi kuka-U.[2001], i-U.C.[6] i-E.[4] i-FFogleander.[5] i-ogcon ewuhlweni lamandla anamandla anjalo, i-Sandmovrevers.[Fov1], u-ult.[2], u-ulk.[2] u-ulight

Izisulelo Zokukhululeka Okungase Kube Khona: Imfundiso Ewujuqu Enqamulayo

Ngaphansi Ex Parete Young, 209 U.S. 123 (08), umkhangisi angase alethe ishende elibusweni ukuba agunyaze ukunqanda ukuphulwa komthetho kahulumeni okuqhubekayo. Lokhu akuvumeli ukulimala kwemali emali embonini yezimali kodwa kuvumela ukuba ilindele ukufakwa emalini empondweni noma ekukhipheni i-oralrationodation. Kumongomongo we-1939, lenkantolo yezwe ingayala umphathi wesikhulu sesizwe noma umphathi we-ocetrality owe ngokomthetho ukuba anqande umkhuba owephula imithetho yendawo ezungezile noma amalungelo abantu. Isibonelo, uma uhulumeni owenziwa ugesi ungenisa izinto ezingcolisayo emfuleni ngaphandle komthetho ohlanzekile, izakhamuzi bangavumela ukuba umqondisi wesimemezelo ukuba anqandwe. Isikhulu asigunyaziwe ukuba siviswe, kodwa uma singenzi umthetho owe umthetho owenziswe ngokusemthethweni.

Ukuphanga Nezinye Iziphazamiso Ezincane

Ukuzivikela kombuso kuthathwa futhi ekuwineni kwemali kukahulumeni (11 U.S.C. 76), okungathinta izikweletu zemali ezikweletwa umuntu onemali ephansi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Federal Tort Anitiess Act (FTCA) izikhali ezilwayo zomthetho kahulumeni, hhayi isifundazwe, kodwa i-athorations ephumayo ye-octives inikeza izenzo ezifanayo. Kwezinye izizwe, uma i-octive ingena emalini emalini ekhokhwanywayo ekhokhwani elikhokhiwe yi-mali. I-Federal Tort Agionties Actives Act (FTCA) kunoma “ievience" umsebenzi we-ose-out", ukuvikeleka kungathi kungasebenzi. Nokho, ukwehluka phakathi kwemisebenzi kahulumeni ne-propietary kugcwele emigatsheni eminingi; amanye amazwe manje asebenzisa uvivinyo olulodwa ukuze avikele noma ingasebenzi umsebenzi. Umthetho we-Plancesmeduans.U.U.Crine

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zezihambi

Ama - Plaintiff Nezi - Attorney

Kunoma iziphi izikhundla ezilula ezilahliwe yindawo engcono yomphakathi, isinyathelo sokuqala sinquma ukuthi ngubani onesisebenzi noma ophethe isisebenzi. Uma kuyindawo ezimele, ukugonyelwa kombuso akusona isithiyo, futhi isu lokungathathi hlangothi, noma isihlukumezo somphakathi sokunganaki, singaqhubekeka enkantolo. Uma isisebenzi sihlosiwe, i-pattiff kumelwe iphawule ukuthi i-"ervetax" i-"eright" , i-gatecter, i-partry, i-partry, noma i-Ex Parte Young[[ imfundiso efuna usizo. Inkantolo futhi kufanele icabangele ukukhokhwasa enkantolo esikhundleni senkantolo, njengoba amanye amazwe efuna ukuvikelwa kwemithetho ye-octivertivert. Ngesibonelo, i-New Yorkchtiod Acts of Activess ofs of the geduart, inter; intervernet.

Okunye ukuhlola okubalulekile ukuthi izenzo ze-elective zihlanganisa ukuthatha impahla ngaphandle kokukhokhiswa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Uma imithetho kahulumeni noma imisebenzi ewusizo iphazamisa umnini-yo yonke inzuzo echumayo yezwe, ukulahlwa okungaqondakali kungatholakala kuhulumeni ngisho nangaphandle kokuyichaya ngokuyingcaca, njengoba ukuthatha u-Celauszinyusi kungu-"ikhona. Isifunda se-Evangelical Lutheran Church v. , u-U.S. 304 (1987). Kulezo zimo, ukuvikela akwenzeki ngenxa yokuthi umthetho ngokwawo unikeza ikhambiso.

Abenzi Bezimiso Nabaphathi Bezemisebenzi

Abaqondisi bemithetho nezimiso zikahulumeni kumelwe balinganisele ngokucophelela isidingo senkonzo ephumelelayo nokuziphendulela. Ukuzivikela ngokweqile kozibuse kungashiya izakhamuzi ngaphandle kokucela ukulimala okungathi sína, ukululaza ukwethemba umphakathi. Ngokuphambene, ukuchayeka ngokungenamkhawulo ekulingeni kungaqeda izimali zikahulumeni futhi kuvimbele ukutshala umphakathi ezinjwayelweni ezibucayi. Imibuso eminingi iye yasabela ngokumisa izigebengu ezilinganiselwe ezivumela ukushekela ecaleni elithile, njengamaRandi angamakhulu amahlanu ngenye indlela, kodwa ngaphandle kwemiphumela egciniwe. Abenzi bemithetho kufanele bacabangele futhi ukufeza izinhlelo zokukhononda kombuso phakathi kwe-PUC ukuze baxazulule izimpikiswano. Izimiso ezinjalo zinganikeza impumuzo enciphisayo, ezishisiwe kakhulu kuyilapho zilondoloza ukuvikela kombuso ngenxa yezinto eziningi.

Abaphathi bezenzuzo ezinhlangano zikahulumeni ezizimeleyo kufanele baqaphele ukuthi ukuvikela kombuso akuzivikeli ekuzibekeleni icala lomuntu siqu ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi noma izenzo ngaphandle komsebenzi. Hafer v. Melo, 502 U.S. 21 (1991), iNkantolo ePhakeme ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni ezisebenza ngaphansi kombala womthetho kahulumeni zingafakwa ekwahluleni kwazo siqu ngenxa yezindleko zomonakalo ngaphansi kweSiqeshana sonyaka ka-1998. Ngakho, umphathi wezentengiselwano oyinkokheli owe ngamabomu owephula amalungelo omthetho womthetho we-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho angabhekana nokuziboshelwa kwecala naphezu kokuvikelwa kwesimiso sombuso. Isigaba esiphambili sokuqeqeshwa esinelisayo esisemthethweni ezimfuneko somthetho kanye nemithetho kahulumeni.

AbaHluleli Nezazi Zezomthetho

Ukudlala phakathi komthetho wezokuvikela izikhundla zomphakathi nomthetho wenzuzo kuyaqhubeka kuguquka. Izinqumo zamuva ezinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni ziye zacaciswa lapho isisebenzi somphakathi siyi “ingalo yeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye” sezinjongo ze-Andeminth Isichibiyeli. Ngokwesibonelo, Frew] v. FT]v. , 540]], 431.2004), iNkantolo iqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho emelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-[FLT]] i-Parte Young[ imfundiso ingagunyazwa. Ekhombayo eqondiswe kakhulu. Inqubwe inqumo yemvume isetshenziswa ukudinga ukukhiwonga izikhungozelo ezingeni eziqondiswe endaweni ezungezile. Izazi zezomthetho ziphawula ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwezindawo ezisebenzela izifunda ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho.

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo: Ukuvinjelwa OkunguMbusi Ekwelashweni Kwezingane

Isimo Sokuqala: Ukungcola Okunomthofu Ekondlekeni Kwamanzi Omphakathi

Flint v.Michigan [ukuhamba], izakhamuzi zaseFlint, Michigan, izikhulu zikahulumeni ezisulelwe ekulweni nale nkinga yamanzi, ziveza ukwaphulwa kwe-Defited Meter Act neSimende se-14]. Umnyango we-Michigan of Environmental Seaty (inhlangano kazwelonke) uqanjwe ngegama. Isifunda sesifunda seSiyisithupha savimba ukuthi ukuzivikela kombuso kuvimbele ezinye izilinganiso kodwa savumela isigaba sango-19343 ukuba simela izikhulu izikhulu inzuzo elindele ukukhulula nokulimaza izimali ngaphansi kwemithetho eyingozi ngokwengxenye ye-Young ngaphandle kwezenzo zokwephula umthetho oqhubekayo. Isimo sibonisa indlela yokuvikela izinhlelo ezithile (g.g., i-pane, izindleko zemali ezivumela izinhlelo zezindawo zemali ezigciniwe.

Indaba Yesibili: Imililo Ebangelwa Yizinto Ezingakhi

ECalifornia, ngemva kwemililo yequator eyabangelwa yiPacific Gas & Ugesi (PG&E) imishini elula esuselwayo iPG& E enkantolo yesifundazwe. IPG&E iyisisebenzi esizimele, ngakho ukuzivikela kobuso kwakungeyona impikiswano. Nokho, amachashaza amangalela futhi i-California Public Uturitity Commission yokwehlisa imingcele yokuphepha. ICPUCPU inxusa likahulumeni futhi ithi igonyelwe yi-CPUCPUC ngaphansi kwe-Fort ToIPis Acts Act ngenxa yokuthi i-Outhoriceltiess ingumsebenzi womthetho othembekile. Lokhu kuqokomisa ubunzima bokukhomba i-hulumeni wezwe ngenxa yokuhluleka, ngisho nalapho i-ogwodwa i-comparensial i-ase.

Ukuthambekela Nokucabangela Kwesikhathi Esizayo

Ukwanda kokubambisana kwamandla okuvuselelwa kanye nokweqiwa kwamandla kukamasipala kudala izinto ezintsha ezingase zithathwe njengezikhali zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, umqondisi womphakathi okhethelwe ukuthengela izakhamuzi amandla angase abe yigunya elihlangeneyo elinamazinga okuvikela uhulumeni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-cobicsecuteribility conterble imfanelo ehlobene nokukhubazeka kwe-productal division iyinto eyandayo. Uma i-modural eyaziwayo ilahlekelwa ulwazi olulimaza abathengi, isivikelo sobuso singaba izimpawu ezithile, kodwa abalawuli bezokuvikela imfuno bangase baphikise ukuthi umsebenzi wenzuzo uhlangene obuhlangeneyo uhlangeneyo nomthetho ohlangeneyo ohlobene nokuhlobana nokuhlelwa kwe-injini esetshenziswayo. Umthetho ofana nomthetho we-[FLD [FF:0] Ukwenyusolse-sective

Okunye ukuthambekela kuwukusetshenziswa kokwakha kwe i-Ex Parte Young ukubekela inselele imfundiso yezenzuzo noma izimiso ezithi ziphula i-Claus yezentengiselwano. USAMUNOLE FURTY of Florida v. Florida, 517 U.S. 4496], iNkantolo yalinganisela ikhono leNkantolo lokuvikela uhulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Cexmaste Claus, kodwa igweba izikhulu zikahulumeni zempumuzo ezifuna usizo olungcono.[Folpoffs] inse insela is shalaye ububhakabhakabhabhabhabha ngaphandle kwe-palthike yamandla angafuna ukuvalwa ngaphandle kwe-Exwordsword.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso ngokuyisisekelo kuhlela indawo edinga i-ligiontive e-United States. Uma ukumangalela kungaqhubeka kuxhomeke esimweni senhlangano njengengalo yombuso, ukuba khona kwe-avration, futhi uhlobo lokukhululeka olufunwayo. Amaphekula nabameli kumelwe basebenzise ulwembu oluyinkimbinkimbi lwemithetho kahulumeni, iSiphendu se-jurisprince, futhi i-Moniversal juridence, i-Prefective engaphandle kwesithiwa i- iParte Young ne-Aut Claus. I-Clavesssssss. Izinga ezithiwe ze-ofelene zihlala zigcwele ezingenisweni zomphakathi, kuyilapho imvume engcono nezimiso ezingcono, kodwa zingajabulisi ezisekuhleni. Njengoba izinselele ezisemfakelwayo ezinsweni zomphakathini eziphambili zisemfakelwayo, i-SLCrective izimisele esingcono kakhulu, eyokusekela ezingokomthetho futhi inzuzo esemthethweni, ilungele ukusekela ezingcono kakhulu, futhi i

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo ngezimiso zomthetho ezikhethekile, hlola i-Cornell Legal Information Institute i-ke acubungula i-, isiqondiso sika-EPA sokuvikela ubukhosi ngaphansi kwezimiso zendawo ezungezile[, kanye nombiko [[FLT:] wenkonzo yokucwaninga ye-Culticalialionism short sowesimiso sokuzinzisambulo sombuso .