Ukuqonda izimiso ezingokomthetho ezihlanganisa ukuvikela kobusosha nokuvikela amalungelo omphakathi kubalulekile ekulondolozeni abantu abasengozini. Lezimfundiso zihlela indlela abantu abangafuna ngayo ubulungisa futhi ziqinisekise ukuthi ohulumeni bahlale benecala ngezenzo zabo. Nakuba ukuvikela kohulumeni ngokobuso bezobuso bezomthetho bezomthetho bevikelekile enkantolo, ukuvikelwa kwemithetho yemithetho yanamuhla kuye kwaveza okuhlukile okuvumela ukusho okusemthethweni, ukulinganisela ngokubucayi phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuhlanganiswa kwezimiso zokuvikela isibopho sobukhosi kanye namalungelo abantu, sigxila ezinkingeni ezingokomthetho namathuba amaqembu afuna ukuvusemzabalaza.

Ukungahlangani KoMbusi: Ukubukeza

Umthetho ovikela izikhali uyimfundiso evimbela uhulumeni ("federal, State,"engamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yayo."Isuka kumthetho ovamile wesiNgisi, lapho inkosi ingenakumangalelwa khona ezinkantolo zayo, lesi simiso sathathwa e-United States ukuze sivikele izimali zomphakathi futhi siqinisekise ukuthi imisebenzi kahulumeni ayiphazanyiswa ngokuphazanyiswa okungapheli. Nokho, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lemfundiso iye yathotshiswa ngemithetho nangezinqumo zokwahlulela eziqaphela amalungelo ezakhamuzi ukuba zigcine uhulumeni unecala lokwenza okubi.

E-United States, ukuzivikela kombuso kusebenza kokubili emazingeni ombuso nombuso, ngamunye obuswa yizimiso ezihlukile namalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo. Lomqondo awuphelele; ukhona, ikakhulukazi lapho iSishaya-mthetho noma izishayamthetho zikahulumeni ziphazamisa. Kubantu abambalwa abasengozini, abantu abakhubazekile, abantu abaneziphene eziphansi, nabanye abahluliwe yikhona okunzima ukuthola amakhambi obandlululo noma ukunganaki.

I - Federal Guimper I - Tort Act

Esigabeni sikahulumeni, iFTRAL Tort Actiness Act (FTCA) inikeza isilinganiso esilinganiselwe sokungamelani kombuso wokuzimela kwe-tort ezisholo zezisebenzi zikahulumeni ezithatha ijubane lokunganaki noma ezingalungile ezisebenza ngokusemthethweni. i-FTCA ivumela abantu ukuba banyukele eUnited States ngenxa yezimo lapho umuntu ozimele angaba necala ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni. Nokho, umthetho uqukethe iziphakamiso eziningi, kuhlanganise nokuveza ukuvuka kwe-intengi kwe-intengi, ukuhlasela, ibhethri) kanye nokuveza izivumelwano zezenzo zokwahlulela ezihilela ukwahlulela.

Kubantu abasengozini, ukusebenza nge-FTCA ngokukhethayo kungaba yisithiyo esiphawulekayo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inhlangano kahulumeni ihluleka ukuphoqelela imithetho yokuphepha emsebenzini wezindlu ophansi othola imali, isinqumo sokungaphoqeleli singathathwa njengemisebenzi engcono, isithibezo esivimbelayo. Izinkantolo ziye zakuchaza ngokuncane lokhu kuthatha ngokungemthetho ophulwayo, kodwa indlela ihlala igcwele izithiyo zokuvalwa kwezindawo.

Ukuhlangana KoMbusi woMbuso NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye

Ukuzivikela kombuso kusekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., esivimbela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zimelane nemithetho emelene nezakhamuzi zombuso othile noma izakhamuzi zawo siqu. Lokhu kugomela kudlulela ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni nasezikhuluni lapho zisebenza ngegunya lazo elingokomthetho. Noma kunjalo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi imibuso ingase inqande ukuzivikela ngokuvuma isibopho, futhi iSishaya-Hulumeni singamelana nomthetho lapho sisebenzisa amalungelo ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo se-148.

Izinqumo eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme, njenge ISAMINOLE FURY of Florida v. Florida (1996], ilinganiselwe amandla eSishaya-mthetho wokususa ukuvikeleka kombuso ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I, kodwa iNkantolo iye yasekela ukuncitshiswa ngaphansi kweSigaxa 5 seSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seMitheliso sezeNkaliso. Lokhu kusho ukuthi imithetho yamalungelo engokomthetho yamalungelo abantu ebekwe ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-145 . [i-pat] Njengesihloko VI se-Polivigal Rights Act ka-1949 kanye nesihloko se-IMelika II ne-Actitubed (AA) Act Act (A) ephethe umthetho we-State, ivumela abantu ngabanye ukuba bahlulwe isigaba sikahulumeni ukuba bakhethe.

Izihambi Nezimpi Zobukhosi

Ngalé kwemithetho egunyazayo, izinkantolo ziye zasungula ukukhululeka kwejaji elibekwe kumthetho wokuzimela. Okubaluleke kakhulu yile imfundiso ephakathi yethi Young, evumela amasuntswana kuziphathimandla zikahulumeni (ebusweni bazo obungokomthetho) ukuze kuvele ukukhululeka kokunqanda ukuphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni. Lemfundiso ayivumeli ukulimala kwemali kuzwe kodwa ivumela izinkantolo ukuba ziyale izikhulu ukuba zivumelane nemithetho esemthethweni nemithetho ye-octaltives. Ivumela abantu abasengozini, ikhono lokuthola iziyalezo zokususa izikole zezeluleko, ukunikeza izinkonzo zomphakathi ezifinyelelekayo, noma ukuyeka ukuphatha amadecregistruciation.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izifundazwe zingadela ngokuzithandela ukuvinjelwa kwesimiso sokuzimela ngemithetho noma ngokwamukela izimali zikahulumeni ezifuna ukuvumelana nemithetho yamalungelo abantu. Isifundazwe esiningi sithi i-tort yenza okufanayo ne-FTCA, ivumela amasudi phakathi kwemingcele ethile. Nokho, lezi zinsweli ngokuvamile zivala umonakalo futhi zibeke isaziso esifushane sezikhathi zokungangeni emasimini, ezingase zinciphise izigebengu ezinolwazi olulinganiselwe olungokomthetho.

Ukuvikelwa Kwamalungelo Abantu Abangahlonishwa

Imithetho yamalungelo ezakhamuzi ivikela abantu ekucwaseni futhi iqinisekisa ukutholakala ngokulinganayo kwamathuba emisebenzi, emakhaya, emfundo, nezinkonzo zomphakathi. Izakhamuzi ezikhohliswayo ." labo ngokomlando abaye babhekana nobandlululo olungokwesimiso //__________________________bayizinzuzo eziyinhloko zalezi zivikelo. Umthetho uhlanganisa imithetho engokomthetho, imithetho kahulumeni, nemithetho yendawo ehlangeneyo edala amalungelo namakhambi.

Imithetho Eyinhloko Yamalungelo Omphakathi

Umthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964: Isihloko se VI senqabela ukucwaswa ngesisekelo sohlanga, umbala, noma umsuka wezwe emihlelweni ethola usizo lwezezimali zikahulumeni. Isihloko VII sivimbela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi esekelwe ohlazweni, ebalani, enkolweni, ebulilini, noma ekudalweni kwesizwe. La malungiselelo aye asetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukucwasana, ukuxhasa ngemali okungalinganiyo, nokucwasa komsebenzi.

AmaMelika anomthetho wokukhubazeka (ADA): owasungulwa ngo-1990, i-ADA inqabela ukucwaswa kwabantu abakhubazekile emsebenzini (isihloko I), izinkonzo zomphakathi (isiHloko II), izindawo zomphakathi (isihloko III), kanye ne-tenation (isihloko IV). Isihloko II sibaluleke kakhulu kubantu abasengozini ngoba sisebenza kuhulumeni nasezinhlangano zikahulumeni wendawo, sifuna ukuba banikeze izinhlelo ezifinyelelekayo, izinkonzo, nezakhiwo.

UMthetho weFair Home Act: Lomthetho wenqabela ukucwaswa kwezindlu ezisekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, imvelaphi yobuzwe, isimo sobufazi, noma ukukhubazeka. Ihlanganisa ukuqasha, ukuthengisa, nemikhuba yokuboleka futhi iye yaba yithuluzi ekulweni nokubomvu kanye neminye imikhuba yokulahla.

Ukuvota Amalungelo Asemthethweni ka-65: Ingxenye 2 no-5 zalesisenzo zivikela ekucwaseni ngokohlanga ekuvoteni, kuhlanganise nezinguquko eziguqula amandla okuvota amancane. Izinqumo zamuva zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zalulaza i-Cell ye-Cullting 5 yemfuneko yokuzihlela, kodwa iSahlulo 2 siseyithuluzi elinamandla lokuguqula.

Ukuchaza Inani Labantu Abanokwanda Okungalawuleki

Izakhamuzi ezikhohlakele zingamaqembu abhekene nengozi enkulu yokucwaswa noma ukulimala ngenxa yokungalingani okungokomlando noma ukubekwa imingcele kwezenhlalo kwamanje. Lokhu kuhlanganisa abantu abambalwa abangokohlanga, abakhubazekile, asebekhulile, izingane, imikhaya ethola imali ephansi, abantu ngabanye, nabantu abangasazi isiNgisi. Ngokuvamile lamaqembu aqaphela ukuthi adinga isivikelo esikhethekile ngoba engenawo amandla ezombangazwe noma imithombo yokuvikela amalungelo awo ngezindlela ezivamile.

Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphansi kwe-ADA, umuntu okhubazekile ubhekwa njengelungu lekilasi elivikelekile. Umthetho ugunyaza indawo yokuhlala engcono emsebenzini nasezinkonzweni zomphakathi, kodwa ukugcinwa kwemithetho ngokuvamile kuxhomeke ekhonweni lomuntu lokuqala isikhalo noMnyango woMahluleli noma uququzelela icala langasese. Ngokufanayo, ngaphansi koMthetho we-Civil Rights, ama-polliff kumelwe abonise izinhloso zokucwasa ezimweni eziningi, okungaba nzima lapho ubandlululo lucatshaza noma luyimfihlo.

Imishini Yokuphoqelela Ukusetshenziswa

Isivikelo samalungelo ezakhamuzi siphoqelelwa ngezindlela eziningana: ukumangalelwa kwamacala, izikhalo zokuphatha, ukuphenywa koMnyango woMahlulelo (DOJ), nokubekwa icala. I-DOJ’s Civil Rights Division inegunya lokumangalela uhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo ngenxa yezindlela zokucwasa, njengasebugwebeni obungafanele bamaphoyisa noma ekucwaseni izindlu. Abantu ngabanye bangamangalela futhi ngenxa yomonakalo noma ukuncitshiswa kwemithetho yomphakathi elawula amalungelo abantu, ngokuvamile besebenzisa [ 422] U.SC. .[144]

Ingxenye 1983 iyithuluzi elinamandla ngoba idala imbangela yokuthatha isinyathelo kunoma yimuphi umuntu, ngaphansi kombala womthetho kazwelonke, ophuca omunye amalungelo kahulumeni. Nokho, uhulumeni owenqaba wombuso uvikela ohulumeni bakahulumeni bezwe kumasudi e-Fort 1983 ngenxa yokulimala. Ohulumeni bendawo (izinto ezizimele) abagonyiwe ngaphansi kwe-Cuartic 1983, kodwa bangaqhubeka bevikela izikhulu zabo ezifanelekayo, ezizivikela ekubekelweni icala uma ilungelo lingamiswanga ngokucacile ngesikhathi sokwaphulwa.

Izinselele Eziphoqelelwayo

Naphezu kwesivikelo esingokomthetho esiqinile ephepheni, abantu abasengozini babhekana nezithiyo ezinkulu zokuqinisa amalungelo abo omphakathi.

Izithiyo Zokufinyelela Ubulungisa

Abantu abaningi abasengozini abanayo imali yommeli. Amacala amalungelo omphakathi ayinkimbinkimbi futhi ngokuvamile adinga ofakazi abangochwepheshe, ukutholakala okukhulu, nokunxusa. Izinhlangano zosizo olungokomthetho nezinkonzo ze-probono, kodwa bangaphansi futhi abakwazi ukuhlangabezana nesidingo esikhulu. Ngokwe-[FLT:] American Bar Association, amaMelika athola usizo oluphansi, amaMelika athola inzuzo engafanele noma awatholi sizo olungokomthetho ezidingweni zawo ezingokomthetho ezingaphezu kuka-80%.

Ulwimi ne-Caltural Barriers:[ Abantu abanolwazi olulinganiselwe lwesiNgisi bangase balwele ukuqonda amalungelo abo, ukugcwalisa amafomu, noma ukuxhumana nabameli nezinkantolo. Nakuba izinhlangano zikahulumeni zinikeza izinkonzo zokuhumusha ngaphansi koMthetho ophethe 13166, ukusetshenziswa kuyaguquguquka.

[ Imithetho eqinile yokulinganiselwa nezimfuneko zokuphawula: Imibono eminingi yamalungelo omphakathi inemikhawulo emifushane, cishe izinsuku eziyi-180 zokufaka isikhalo sokuphatha ngeKhomishane ye-Universal Opportunity Commission (EOC) ngenxa yokucwaswa kwemisebenzi. Izakhamuzi ezikhokhelwayo zingase zingazi ngalezi zinsuku ezimisiweyo noma zingabambezeleka ukufuna usizo.

I-mmmony eqinisekiswe: Lemfundiso ivikela izikhulu zikahulumeni ekumangalelweni ngecala lengozi ngaphandle kokuba ukuziphatha kwazo kumiswe ngokucacile ukuthi zinelungelo lomthetho noma lomthetho-sisekelo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvikeleka okufanelekayo kuvumela izikhulu ukuba ziphume ekulahlweni yicala ngisho nalapho zilimaza imiphakathi esengozini, ngoba indinganiso "ehlelwe ngokusobala" ichazwa ngokucunulile. INkanto ePhakathi iqaphele indima yalemfundiso ekuvikeleni izikhulu ezinkonzweni eziyize kodwa ayizange iguquleke kakhulu.

Indima Yezinkonzo Zosizo Olungokomthetho Nezokuqondisa I - ProBono

Izinhlangano ezingafaki nzuzo njenge-ACLU, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, ne-Foold Rights yase California inikeza izimpawu ezibalulekile ezithinta ithonya. Zivame ukuveza izenzo zekilasi ezingathinta izinkulungwane zabantu. Nokho, lezinhlangano zihlela amacala angokomthetho alandelayo, zishiye izikhalo eziningi ezingaxazululwanga. Izinhlelo ze-probobo ezisezimbonini ezinkulu zinikela, kodwa ukutholakala kwezinkonzo zomthetho ezikhululekile kusengaphansi kakhulu kwesidingo.

Ukukhuluma Ne - Systemic Biase

Ngaphandle kwecala ngalinye, ubandlululo lwezimiso ezisemithethweni, − njengokuhluka kwezinhlanga ekukhetheni abahluleli, ukugweba, nakumaphoyisa − ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu. Izinkantolo ziye zaqaphela lezi zindlela kodwa ngokuvamile ziyanqikaza ukuphoqelela amakhambi okwakha. Kubantu abasengozini kakhulu, icebo eliphumelela kakhulu lihlanganisa ukuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa nokuhlela ukuqhubekisela phambili izinguquko ezinkulu.

Ukulinganisela Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Namalungelo Omphakathi

Umbango phakathi kwesimiso sokuvikela ukubusa namalungelo omphakathi uyinhloko yamacala amaningi asenkantolo abalulekile. Nakuba ukuvikela izikhali ezizimele kuvikela amabhokisi omphakathi, imithetho yamalungelo ezakhamuzi imelela ukulingana okungenakufezeka ngokugcwele uma ohulumeni bengenakuvikeleka. Izinkantolo ziye zalawula lokhu kucindezeleka ngokuvumela ukusho okuthile kuqhubeke kuyilapho zivimbela abanye.

Umonakalo Obangelwa Ukusiza Obuhlungu.

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, imfundiso ex Young inikeza indlela yokufuna ukukhululeka ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni. Lokhu kubucayi kubantu abasengozini ngoba ivumela izinkantolo ukuba zihlele ushintsho ekuziphatheni kukahulumeni . njengokuthuthukisa izimo zasejele, ukunikeza abatoliki bolimi lwezandla ezibhedlela zomphakathi, noma ukumisa imikhuba yokuvala igebe. Nokho, ukukhululeka okungalungiseki akuzibali izisulu zangaphambili, futhi ukuvimbela izigijimi eziyinkimbinkimbi kungaba nzima.

Ngokuphambene, izindleko zemali ngokuvamile azitholakali ezifundazweni ngaphandle kokuba ukuvikeleka kokuzivikela kuxoshiwe. Kuzisebenzi zikahulumeni, i-FTCA inikeza ikhambi elilinganiselwe, kodwa i-seacter ne-oversity ngokuvamile ishiya ababoshelwe phansi. Izikhulu zikahulumeni zendawo, i-Cexception 1983 ikhona uma isikhulu simangalelwa emfundweni, kodwa isivikelo esifanelekayo singavimbela ukululama uma kungamiswanga kahle.

Umphumela Owaba Kubantu Abanobunzima

Ukudlala phakathi kokuzivikela kombuso namalungelo omphakathi kunemiphumela yangempela. Ngokwesibonelo, [[FLT: 0] Brown v. Plata (2011], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela umyalo ofuna iCalifornia ukuba inciphise inani labantu bayo basejele ngenxa yezimo zokungahleleki zokunakekela kwezokwelapha. Izwe laliye laphikisana nesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi, kodwa iNkantolo yayiphethe ukuthi ukukhululeka okubangelwa yiSigqilo soMciso kufanelekile ngaphansi kweSivumelo seNguquko kanye neSigqi se-Andengi. Isinqumo saphoqesha ushintsho olubalulekile, oluzuzisa amakhulu ezinkulungwane zeziboshwa ezisengozini.

Ngokuphambene, e iDolobha laseCleburne, eTexas v. Cleburne Living Center (1985), iNkantolo yakhipha umthetho owehlayo owahlukanisa ngokukhetha iqembu lamakhaya abantu abakhubazekile ngokwengqondo, kodwa abahlaseli kwadingeka balwe ngemingcele yemicu ehlanganisa izikhuseli ezifanelekayo zezokuvikela izikhulu zendawo. Icala libonisa ukuthi ngisho nempumelelo ye-ligigation inikeza inzuzo futhi iphazamisa imizwelo.

Intuthuko Yamuva Neziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

Izinqumo zamuva nje zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zandisa futhi zalinganisela isivikelo samalungelo abantu emongo wesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi. Allen v. Milligan [2023], iNkantolo yasekela i-Cuartic 2 of the Voting Rights Act, ifuna ukuba ibalazwe futhi lifake ibalazwe lamalungelo abantu elihlangene ukuze lihlanganise izimpikiswano ezisezingeni lesibili ezisembheqwembeni. Isifunda sasisekele izimpikiswano ezizimele, kodwa iNkantolo yathola ukuthi i-Voting Rights Act i-gadrot ngokomthetho we-octivemented Reconftivement esemthethweni. Lesi sinqumo siqinisa isimiso sokuthi amalungelo ezakhamuzi anganqoba ukuvinjelwa lapho eshaya izivumelwano zomthetho womthetho.

Okwamanje, iNkantolo iye yanciphisa izinga le-Ingxenye ka 1983 isho amacala anjenge Tores v. Madrid [201], eyacabangela ukuthi ukuquleka kwenzeka noma izikhulu zisebenzisa amandla kodwa zihluleka ukuvimbela umuntu. Nakuba iNkantolo yandisa incazelo yokuthatheka ngezinjongo zeSine sokuzinzisa, futhi yaqapha ekukhuliseni amalungelo omphakathi ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni.

Uma ibheka phambili, imizamo yokushaya umthetho njenge-George Floyd Justice in Policing Act ijonge ukuguqula ukuvikeleka okufanelekayo nokuqinisa umthwalo wokulandisa ngokuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa. Uma idluliswa, imithetho enjalo ingathinta ngokuqondile ukulinganisela phakathi kokuzivikela kobukhosi namalungelo omphakathi kubantu abasengozini. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinguquko zezinga eliphezulu zikahulumeni ziveza izimbangela ezintsha zesenzo ezidlula izimfundiso zobushiqela obusebusweni.

Isiphetho

Imibono engokomthetho ngesivikelo sobuso besimiso sokuzivikela somthetho namalungelo abantu yembula umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuqinisekisa ubulungisa kubantu abasengozini. Nakuba ukuvikela kombuso ngokusemthethweni kuhlala kuyisivikelo esikhulu kohulumeni, ukushiyana nezimfundiso zokwahlulela kunikeza amathuba okulandisa ngokukhululekile ngokuphindwe kane ngokukhululeka nokuncishiswa kweNguquko yeminyaka Engamashumi amane. Nokho, imingcele evimbela njengokuvikela ukunqanda ukunqanda, imithombo engokomthetho elinganiselwe, kanye nezithiyo zokuvikela amacala emakhaya ziyaqhubeka zisehlisa isithembiso semithetho yamalungelo abantu. Ngoba, indlela engaphambili ihlanganisa hhayi nje ukudluliswa kwezehlakazomthetho kodwa futhi nokusunduza izinguquko ezibangela ukuncishiswa kwemithetho enciphekayo ezinwe kakhulu zomphakathi. Ngenhlanganiseni yezimiso ezingokomthetho, ukulawulwa kwezemfundo yomphakathi, nemfundo esemthethweni, isimiso somthetho esisemthethweni singafeza umgomo ongcono ngaphansi komthetho wayo.