Indlela Amandla Aphuthumayo Asetshenziswa Ngayo Ekumelaneni Nezimo Zobuphekula

Amagunya aphuthumayo amelela ukushintshwa okuyisisekelo kokulinganisela phakathi kwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye negunya likahulumeni phakathi nezikhathi zosongo olukhulu lwesizwe. Kumongo wobuphekula, la ziphathimandla ezikhethekile zivumela ohulumeni ukuba bashaye imingcele evamile yezimiso zomthetho kanye nezivikelo zomthetho ukuba baphendule ngesivinini namandla ukuze bavimbele ukuhlasela. Nakuba lamandla ngokuvamile enziwa njengezidingo zesikhashana, ukusetshenziswa kwawo kuphakamisa imibuzo ejulile ngokuphathelene nokubusa komthetho, ukulandisa ngentando yeningi, kanye nesivikelo samalungelo abantu. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlolwa okunegunya lokuthi amagunya aphuthumayo asetshenziswa kanjani empikiswaneni empikiswaneni, izimpikiswano eziwabangela, nenseleleko eqhubekayo yomsebenzi ehambisana nokulinganisela phakathi kokulondeka nenkululeko.

Ayini Amandla Aphuthumayo?

Iziphathimandla ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingavamile ezinikezwe igatsha eliphethe uhulumeni, ngokuvamile phakathi nezinhlekelele ezinjengempi, izinhlekelele zemvelo, izimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi, noma ukusongela kobuphekula. Lemibuso ivumela ohulumeni ukuba badlulise izinqubo ezingokomthetho ezivamile, babeke imingcele ekhululekile yomphakathi, futhi benze izenzo ebezingangekho emthethweni ngaphansi kwezimo ezivamile. I-plign ifuna ukusabela okungavamile ukuze kuvikelwe ukulondeka kwesizwe nokuphepha komphakathi.

Isisekelo esingokomthetho semibuso ephuthumayo siyahlukahluka ezigabeni. Amazwe amaningi anemiyalo echaza isikhathi nendlela amagunya aphuthumayo angasetshenziswa ngayo. Ngokwesibonelo, iSiphakamiso 48 seSimiso soMbuso weSimiso se-Weimar sadumedu esidume ngokunikwa imibuso esabaleleyo kuMongameli waseJalimane, ilungiselelo kamuva elasetshenziswa kabi umbuso wamaNazi. Ngokungafani, iUnited States Constitution ayinikezi ngokuqondile isimo esiphuthumayo, kodwa iSivumelwano esinike uMongameli imithetho enikeza igunya eliphuthumayo, njenge-National Emertiotive Act of 1976. Ngokufanayo, iUnited Kingdom ixhomeke eMthethweni ka-Convictive Act 2004 neyo emelene nemithetho emelene ne-RGroultication. Imithetho edinga ukuvikelwa okungaqondile yisimo somphakathi, inguquko yesizwe esidinga ukuvinjena. [FLT:][FFFON][2][3][3][5][RC]

Imibuso ephuthumayo ihlanganisa izinyathelo eziningi: ukuqapha nokuqoqwa kokuhlakanipha okuthuthukisiwe, ukuvalelwa ngaphandle kwemali, imingcele yokuhamba nokuhlangana, izikhungo zokulawula, imishini yokulawula, iqhwa, kanye nokuqondisa ukuxhumana. Izinga nenkathi yalamandla ngokuvamile ingaphansi kokuqondisa kwephalamende, ukubukezwa kokwahlulela, nokushona kwelanga, nakuba ukuphumelela kwalezizivikeli kuhluka kakhulu.

Indlela Amandla Aphuthumayo Asetshenziswa Ngayo Ekumelaneni Nezephekula

Imisebenzi yokulwa nobuphekula ixhomeke kakhulu esivininini, ekufihleni, nasekungeneni okuqhubekayo. Amandla aphuthumayo enza iziphathimandla zikwazi ukwenza ngaphambi kokuba kuhlasele, ngokuvamile ngokusekelwe ebuhlakani obungase bungahlangabezi izindinganiso ezisobala ezifunekayo ezinkantolo zobugebengu. Ngezansi kunezindlela eziyinhloko lezi mibuso ezisetshenziswa ngazo.

Ukubuthana Kokuhlakanipha Nokukhalipha

Enye yezindlela ezivamile ukusetshenziswa yi-USA PATRIOT Act egunyaza ukuqoqwa kwamakhono okuhlola. Amandla obuchwepheshe avumela izinhlangano zokuhlakanipha ukuba ziqhube i-metamphoter engenamvume, ziqondise i-metammeta yokuxhumana, i-metam-data eyimfihlo, futhi zithumele ubuchwepheshe obuphambili obufana nokuqapha ubuso nokuhlola i-drone. Ngokwesibonelo, isiqephu samashumi amahlanu se-USA PARIOTTTTTT Act sigunyaze ukuqoqwa okukhulu kocingo olugunyaziwe, uhlelo kamuva olwabekwa ngokungekho emthethweni ngeSecond Court of Appel Applers. EFrance, isifunda sesimo esiphuthuma sandile ngemva kokuhlasela kwe-Novembe 2015 iParis savuma ukuphethwa nokuhlola nokuhlola izingxoxo kobuchwepheshe ngaphandle kwemvume yokwahlulela. Izikhulu zezehlulelo-mthetho ziphikisa ukuthi izinyathelo ezinjalo zingawazisa amaphekulaleli amangqamuzana ocingo nokuphazamisa ucingo, kuyilapho abagxeki abagxeki bebubhishoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshosholo obu

Ukukhohlwa Okuvimbelayo

Iziphathimandla ezivimbela ukuvalelwa ejele zivumela ukuba zibambe abantu abasolwa ngokuhileleka kwamaphekula ngaphandle kokukhokhwa noma ukuqulwa kwecala isikhathi eside. Lokhu kubhekwa njengenye yezimo eziphuthumayo eziphikiswa kakhulu ngoba kuphula ngokuqondile ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elilungile ne-habeas corpus. I-United Kingdom’s Prevention of Terrorism Act iqala uku-odact yokulawula ngo-2005. Ngokulandela i-Prorisciokract i-Prorisms (I-TPIM) i-I-examplate (i-TPIM) efaka umthetho ovimbela ukuvalelwa, ukuvinjelwa, nokuvinjelwa ngemishini okungasolwa ngaphandle kwecala. KwakwaIsrayeli, ukuvalelwa kwe-Australia kuye kwasetshenziswa kakhulu izilwiwasePalestini, ngokuvamile kugxekwa amaqembu amalungelo abantu ngokweze futhi kuqhubeke. Isihluthulelo esingokomthetho silinganisela isidingo sokuvimbela abantu engozini sokuboshwa kwecala esisekelwe ekuhlosweni okusekelwe ekuhlonisweni okusekelwenisiwe eyimfihlo.

Imingcele Ngokuhamba Nomhlangano

Amandla aphuthumayo angavimbela inkululeko yokuhamba nokuhlangana ukuze avimbele amaphekula ekuhleleni noma ekuxhumaneni. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukumiswa kwesikhathi okunzima, ukumiswa kwemithetho yezikhathi, ukuhlolwa kwezindawo, nokuvinjelwa kwemibuthano yomphakathi. Phakathi nomphumela wokuqhunyiswa kwebhomu eLondon ngo 2005, amaphoyisa anikwa amandla okumisa futhi ahlole ngaphansi kweSigaba 44 se-Tervision Act 2000, awavumela ukuba avimbele wonke umuntu ngaphandle kokusola okunengqondo. INkantolo yaseYurophu Yamalungelo Abantu yathola ukuthi lomkhuba waphulwa iSiphakamiso 8 se-European Convention on Human Rights Rights Act (AFFS), eNdiya, i-ADrimeaders Special Livect (AFURS) iye yasetshenziswa eMthethweni weSigabeni ka-Grectorticusticusticusticustics (AF.) ukuba abeke imingcele ezindaweni eziphikisanayo, ihoxiwe isikhathi eside ukuhlasela kwempi zikahulumeni.

Abalawuli Bezimali Nezokukhulumisana

Imibuso ephuthumayo ivame ukuhlasela amaphekula ngokwezimali nezokuxhumana. Ohulumeni bangaqinisa izimali, bamise izinhlangano zamaphekula, futhi bafune ukuba izinhlangano zezimali zibike ukuthengiselana okusolekayo. I-USA PATRIOT Act yandisa igunya lokuthatha izinto zezinhlangano ezicatshangelwa ukuthi zisekela ubuphekula. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amagunya aphuthumayo angadinga izisebenzi zezesayensi ye-inthanethi ukuze avimbele ukushisekela izinto ezinamandla noma avimbele izingosi ezisezingeni elithile. Ngokwesibonelo, iPakistan, iye yavala ngokuphindaphindiwe iziteshi zezokuxhumana nezokuxhumana phakathi kwezokuhlola nokuhlola phakathi kwemisebenzi yokuphepha. Lezi zinyathelo zihlongosi zokususa imithombo yezokuxhumana nezindlela zokuxhumana ezibonisa ukuxhumana, kodwa futhi iphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngezindlela zokuxhumana.

Imisebenzi Yokuzenzela Yasemthethweni Nokuqondisa

Ukuvimbela ukuxhashazwa, izisekelo eziqinile zomthetho kanye nezimiso zokwengamela kubalulekile. Imibuso eminingi yentando yeningi ifuna ukuba imibuso edinga usizo ilinganiswe isikhathi, ilungiswe ngenkathi yomthetho, futhi ivulekelwe inselele yokwahlulela. Izigaba zelanga zicishe zikhiphe amagunya anjalo ngaphandle kokuba aphinde agunyazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, i-USA PATRIOT'S Act yelungiselelo elikhulu kwadingeka ukuba ivuselelwe kaningi kakhulu ngaphambi kokuba iphinde ilungiswe yi-USA NCONDURAGCE Act ngo-2015.

Amanye amazwe, njenge-United Kingdom, anezinkantolo ezikhethekile ezinjenge-Punciblication Powers Tribunal ukuze kusingathwe izikhalo ezimelene nezinhlangano zokuhlakanipha. Amanye, njengaseJalimane, adinga izinyathelo zokuqapha ukuze zivunyelwe yikomiti yephalamende. Amandikimba ezizwe zonke njengaye [[FLT]][United Nations Counter-Terrogist Committence Committee [[FLT] [[FLT]] akhuthaza ukuqinisekisa ukuvunyelwa kwezibopho zamalungelo abantu lapho kusetshenziswa izinyathelo eziphikisanayo. Imibiko eveza i-RGUM, imibiko eqondile, ne-ombusa phambili inengxenye ekuphenduleni icala. Nokho, ukufihla imfihlolo engaphakathi ekulondeni kwesizwe kungavimbela ukuphatha impatho.

Izimpikiswano Nokugxeka

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi la mandla asetshenziswa ngokweqile, ahloselwe ngokungafanele, noma alondolozwe isikhathi eside ngemva kokuba usongo lokuqala seludlulile.

Ukukhululwa Komphakathi Namalungelo Abantu

Amandla angokomosholo alinganisela ngokwemvelo amalungelo ayisisekelo njengawemfihlo, inkululeko yokukhuluma, nenqubo efanele. Izinhlangano zamalungelo abantu ezifana Amnesty International kanye ne [[FLT] ne-[FLT][FLT][FLT][FULT][5] American Liberes Union [[[FLT][FLT]] ifaka izenzakalo lapho izinhlelo zokuhlola zithinta imiphakathi emincane, amaSulumane, nabashisekeli bezombangazwe. Imfihlosi yemisebenzi eminingi ephikisana ne-GURCUB] ilula isimiso sobulungisa ngokomthetho wenkululeko nokulunga kobufakazi obubolile.

Ukuhlambalaza Kobuhlanga Nenkolo

Imibuso eminingi yesimo esiphuthumayo isetshenziswa ngezindlela ezicupha amaqembu athile ezinhlanga noma enkolo. Ukuhlola kuye kwabonisa ukuthi amandla okumisa nokuhlola e-UK athinta ngokungenakulinganiswa abantu abamnyama naba-Asia. E-United States, uhlelo lwangemva kwe-9/11 abathunjwa nohlelo lwe-National Security Hamport-Extibation System (NCEARS) agxekwa ngokukhipha abantu emazweni amaSulumane nama-mority. Lokho kulimaza ukuthenjelwa komphakathi, izigebengu, futhi kungavimbela imizamo yokulwa kwezehlakazekile ngokunciphisa ukubambisana nomthetho.

Ukuthuthwa Nokuvinjelwa

Amagunya angokohlelo ahloselwe ukuba abe yisikhashana ngokuvamile aba yizikhawu ezihlala njalo. USA PATRIOT Act yadluliselwa ngomsuka wokushona kwelanga, kodwa amalungiselelo ayo amaningi avuselelwe noma enziwa ahlala njalo. Amandla enzelwe ukulwisana nezenzo zobuphekula aye asetshenziselwa ezinye izinjongo, njengokuphoqelela noma ukulawulwa kwezidakamizwa. Lento, eyaziwa ngokuthi "ukunyakazisa," isusa izikhungo zentando yeningi zentando yeningi nezilinganisa izinyathelo ezikhethekile ezikhethekile. Brennan Center yeJaji yeJaji yeJaji [ [FLT]] [ist:3] ilandele izibalo ze-state ezingaphezulu 100 ze-oraltioralments ezikhona ku-U.S., amaningi awezinye ezisele zikhona kodwa akhona.

Ukuntuleka Kokubona Izindawo Nokulandisa

Ohulumeni bavame ukucela ukulondeka kwesizwe ukuze bavikele imibuso ephuthumayo ukuba ingahlolisiswa umphakathi. Izinkantolo zasese, ubufakazi obuhlukanisayo, neziqondiso ezisemthethweni zivimbela ukuqondisa okunenzuzo. Ukusetshenziswa "kwabelweli abakhethekile" emacaleni obuphekula ase-UK"(__alagnes) abakwazi ukubona ubufakazi obuyimfihlo kodwa abangakwazi ukuxhumana ngokugcwele nabasolwayo (/bagxekwa njengabanganele). Ngaphandle kokuba sobala, kunengozi yokuxhashazwa, futhi umphakathi awunakuhlola ukuthi amandla alingana noma ayasebenza yini.

Ukuhlola Icala

Ukuhlola izibonelo zezwe langempela kucacisa indlela amandla esimo esiphuthumayo asebenza ngayo nemiphumela evezwa yizo.

Umthetho Ophathelene Ne - USA PORTIOT (United States)

Ibhalwe kungakapheli nezinyanga ezimbili ngemva kokuhlasela kwe-September 11, i-USA PARIOTT Act yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuqapha nokuhlola kwamandla omthetho wase-U.S. izinhlelo eziyinhloko zahlanganisa ukugcinwa kwemibhoshongo yokuhlola, ukukwazi ukufinyelela amarekhodi ebhizinisi, "sneak nokuhlola" ukuphenya okuyekelelayo kwesaziso kulendaba. Umthetho waqhutshekwa kusukela ekuqaleni, okwaholela ekudalweni kwe-USA INVVULUMT Act ngo-2015, eyaqeda iqoqo lemimeta-mita. Nokho, izikhulu eziningi zokuhlola zisekhona endaweni yayo, futhi izingxoxo ziyaqhubeka zithola isigaba sesigaba esingama-702 se-Externonversertveillance Act (FA), ezihlasela abantu abangabanga seMelika kodwa abaqoqana izingxoxo zase-Melika.

Ubuphekula Base - UK Buyaqala

I-United Kingdom inomlando omude womthetho wokulwa nobuphekula ohlangene nempi yase-Northern Ireland, eyathi kamuva yavuselelwa ubuphekula emhlabeni wonke. Umthetho ka-gandaganda 2000 wamisa ukumiswa okubanzi nokuphenyiswa kwemibuso kanye namandla okuvimbela ukusolwa izinsuku ezingu-28 ngaphandle kokukhokha. Ukunqanda ukuncishiswa kwesimiso sobuphekula kunciphe izinsuku ezingu-14. Ukunqanda umthetho wokulawula u-Pidism 2005, okwathathelwa indawo yizimpi zika-TPIM ngo-2011. Ngo-20, i-Countercierism-Trorisism and Security Act yamisa umsebenzi ezinkampanini zomphakathi wokuvimbela abantu ukuba bangangeniswe ebuphekula, abagxeki abagxeki bebanga izazi ukuba babike abantu ngabanye ngenxa yokusola okungaqondakali. Imibuso ye-UK ibilokhu iphakamisa izinselele eziningi ezingokomthetho, kuhlanganise neNka yeNka yeNka Yomphakathi.

Isimo Esiphuthumayo EFrance

After the November 2015 Paris attacks, France declared a state of emergency that lasted nearly two years, until November 2017. This granted police powers to place individuals under house arrest, conduct searches without judicial warrant, restrict public gatherings, and block websites. While the government argued these measures were necessary to prevent further attacks, human rights groups documented over 4,500 razzia (searches) that resulted in only a handful of terrorism-related charges. Critics also noted that Muslims and activists were disproportionately targeted. The state of emergency was eventually replaced by the counterterrorism law of October 2017, which made many emergency powers permanent but with some judicial oversight.

Amandla aseNdiya ahlomile agunyaza amandla akhethekile (AFSPA)

Ekuqaleni kwabekelwa umthetho wokusingatha ukunqamuka kwezindawo eNyakatho-mpumalanga futhi kamuva wadluliselwa kuJamu noKashmir, i-AFSPA inikeza amabutho ahlomile amandla abanzi ukuba aboshwe ngaphandle kogunyazo, iphenya, futhi ivulele umlilo kubantu abasolwa ukuthi bamelene nokuhleleka komphakathi. Lo mthetho uye walahlwa kabanzi yizinhlangano zamalungelo abantu ngenxa yokubangela ukungajeziswa kwesijeziso futhi wafaka isandla ekubulaleni nasekuhlukunyezeni. Naphezu kwalokho u-aa amabutho ahlome ukuba abondliwe ngaphandle komthetho, uhulumeni waseNdiya uyaqhubeka udinga ukulwa nokuhlasela komphakathi. Lokhu kubonisa indlela amandla aphuthumayo angaqina ngayo, anqamule ngayo impi yokuqala futhi abangele umonakalo emiphakathini.

Ukulinganisela

Ukulinganisa ukulondeka nenkululeko yomphakathi akuyona inombolo elinganiselwe. Ukucwaninga kusikisela ukuthi amandla esimo esiphuthumayo aphumelela kakhulu uma ehlotshaniswa nokuqondisa okuqinile, imingcele ecacile, nokulandisa okuqotho. Izimiso eziyinhloko zokufinyelela lokhu kulinganisela zihlanganisa:

  • Iprojekthi: Izinyathelo eziphuthumayo kufanele zidingeke kakhulu futhi zilingana nosongo oluthile. Akufanele zibe zibanzi kunesidingo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Imingcele yesikhathi:[ Amandla okushona kwelanga kufanele azenzekela ngaphandle uma imvumela ngokuqondile yesishaya-mthetho ngemva kwengxoxo yomphakathi.
  • [[[UMTL:0] Ukubukeza okubalulekile: izinkantolo ezizimele kufanele zibe negunya lokubekela inselele nezinyathelo ezilula eziphula amalungelo ayisisekelo.
  • [ Umthetho: Ohulumeni kufanele bamemezele imibiko eningiliziwe ngokusetshenziswa kwamandla aphuthumayo, kuhlanganise nemininingwane ehlangeneyo ngokuseshwa, ukuvalelwa, nokuqashelwa.
  • Ukungavumelani okungasho ukuthi u-Non-Discrimina: Izilinganiso akufanele zisongele abantu abasekelwe ohlangeni, enkolweni, noma ebuhlangani. Ukubopha umphakathi kungasiza ekwakheni ukwethembana futhi kuthuthukise ukuhlakanipha.
  • I-parliament prevision stative:[ amakomiti azinikezele athole ukwaziswa okungahlukaniswa kufanele ahlole izenzo zesikhulu futhi aphoqelele ubufakazi.

Amazwe amaningana aye ahlela izinguquko ukuze avumelane kangcono amandla awo aphuthumayo namalungelo abantu. E-United States, i-USA INVYD Act ibuyisela ezinye izivikela zemfihlo. E-United Kingdom, ukusungulwa kwe-TPIMs kwaqala ngokulawula okuqinile. EFrance, umthetho omelene nobuphekula ngo-2017 wakha uhlelo olusemthethweni oluhlala njalo kodwa ngokuhlola kwephalamende. Lezi zibonelo zibonisa ukuthi kungenzeka ukusabela ebuphekulaneni ngaphandle kokulahla imingcele yentando yeningi.

Isiphetho

Amagunya aphuthumayo ayithuluzi elidingekile ekulweni nobuphekula, anika ohulumeni amandla okuthatha isinyathelo ngaphambi kokuba kuhlasele. Ikhono labo lokuphazamisa amaqhinga, ukuqoqa ukuhlakanipha, nokuvikela izakhamuzi alinakulahlwa. Nokho umlando ubonisa ukuthi lamandla afanayo, uma enganqatshelwa, angaholela ekuxhashazweni, ukucwaswa, ukucwaswa, kanye nokuncishiswa okuhlala njalo kwenkululeko yomphakathi. Inselele engokomthetho wombuso wentando yeningi ukuklama kokubili okuphumelelayo nokuqina ngokumelene nonya. Lokhu kudinga ukuqapha njalo, impikiswano yasobala, kanye nesibopho sokubusa umthetho. Njengoba ukusongela kwamaphekulambela amagunya amakhambi, kanjalo futhi kumelwe kuqinisekise ukuthi izinyathelo ezikhethekile zihlala zingavamile ngempela futhi azikhonzile ngendlela entsha. Uvivinyo lokulwa kwenqubo yokulwa nonyathelana akukuvimbele kuphela, kodwa futhi akuvimbele inkululeko yokuhlasela noma kuvinjelwe.