Uhulumeni wase-United States usebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso sokuhlukanisa kwemibuso, uhlukanisa igunya phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu ahlukene: ukumisa imithetho, ukuphatha, nokwahlulela. Lesisakhiwo, esisekelwe emibhalweni ye-Montesquieu futhi kamuva eqanjiwe kumaFederalistPapers, saklanyelwa ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ekutholeni amandla adlulele. Ngezinqubo ezaziwayo eziyaziwa njengezihlola nezilinganiselayo, igatsha ngalinye libheka abanye njengesibopho esiqinile esiye sahlala amakhulu amabili eminyaka. Ukuqonda lezizimiso zokulandisa kudingekile ekuqondeni ukuthi inqubo yentando yeningi kakhulu, kusukela ekuhleleni imithetho yemithetho yokusebenza nokuchaza kwayo.

AmaFramers oMthetho-sisekelo akha ngamabomu uhulumeni lapho amandla ehlukene futhi ehlanganyelwa khona. UJames Madison wabhala ngokudume kakhulu kuFederalist No. 51 ukuthi "ukuvelela kumelwe kwenziwe ukuze kulwisane nesifiso sokuvelela." Ngokunika igatsha ngalinye isigxobo emsebenzini wamanye, isimiso sikhuthaza ukuqondisana futhi sivimbele ubushiqela. Lesi sihloko sihlola amathuluzi akhethekile igatsha ngalinye eliwasebenzisayo ukuhlola amanye, umongo ongokomlando walemibuso, nendlela eqhubeka ngayo ukubusa namuhla.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho

Igatsha lemithetho, elibunjwe ngokuyinhloko yiKhongolosi (Indlu Yabameleli neSigele), linomthwalo wemfanelo wokwenza imithetho, ukukhokha izintela, nokukhipha izimali zikahulumeni. Libheka amagatsha aphethe nahluleli ukuba alandise ngezinqubo eziningana ezinamandla ezisekelwe kuMthetho-sisekelo futhi ezisungulwe emakhulwini amabili eminyaka ezisebenza.

Ukugada Nokuphenya

UKhomishane unegunya elikhulu lokuqondisa ukuqulwa nokuphenyiswa kwezenzo zegatsha eliphethe. Lo msebenzi wokwengamela ubalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi imithetho isetshenziswa ngendlela ehloselwe ngayo nokuthi imali yokukhokha intela isetshenziswa ngokuphumelelayo. Amakomiti akhona kuzo zombili izindawo abiza njalo omabhalane bamakhabhathi, iziphathi zezinhlangano, nezinye izikhulu ukuba zifakazele. Angaphoqelela ukukhiqizwa kwamaphepha ngamabhukwana angaphansi kwe-Processpona, futhi ukwenqaba ukuhambisana nawo kungaholela ekudeleleni i-Listration Rerection.

Izibonelo eziphawulekayo zobubonisi zihlanganisa ukuqulwa kwecala leSigele iWatergate ngawo-1970, okwaveza ukusetshenziswa kabi kombuso we-Nixon, kanye nokuphenya kwamuva kakhulu ekuhlaseleni kwe-Capitol ka-January 6. Ukuphathwa kwe-Congregation kudlulela nasegatsheni lokwahlulela, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nokuphatha kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ngokulawula kwayo isikhwama, iSishaya - mthetho singathonya izimali zezinhlangano zezikhulu nezokuphatha, sinikeze i-computary ekhonweni eliqondile kodwa elinamandla.

Ukuzifunela

Ukuphenya kungenye yeziphetho eziphambili ezikhona kuKhongolo. Indlu yabameleli inamandla okuphela ezikhulu zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nomongameli, isekela likamongameli, nabahluleli, ngenxa "yomcabango, ukufumbathisa, noma ezinye izenzo zobugebengu ezinkulu." ISigele siqunga icala, futhi siqunga icala, ngezingxenye ezimbili kwezintathu ezidingwa ukukholisa nokususa esikhundleni.

Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, le House iye yalahla omongameli abathathu: uAndrew Johnson (1868), uBill Clinton (1998), noDonald Trump (209 no-2021). Akukho noyedwa owalahlwa icala yiSigele, kodwa le nqubo ngokwayo isebenza njengendlela yokuvimbela nokulandisa komphakathi. Icala elidume kakhulu lisasele likaMongameli Andrew Johnson, owaye walandela ngemva kokwephula uMthetho weHlawulo. Egatsheni lokwahlulela, abahluleli abangu-hulumeni abayishumi nanhlanu baye balahlwa, ababoshelwa futhi basuswa abangusishiyagalombili. Igunya lokungamela ukuthi akukho muntu okhethiwe noma omiswe isikhulu somthetho.

Ukuqinisekiswa kokunqunyelwa

ISigele sifeza indima ebaluleke kakhulu ekuhloleni igatsha eliphethe ngenqubo yokuqinisekisa. Umongameli u-presidentias wezikhundla zamakhabethe, izikhulu zikahulumeni (kuhlanganise namajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme), nezinye izikhundla eziphakeme zidinga ukuvunyelwa kweSishaya-mthetho. Le nqubo yenza igatsha lemithetho likwazi ukuhlola izimfanelo, isizinda, kanye nokuthambekela kwezombangazwe kwabameleli ngaphambi kokuba lithathe isikhundla.

Inqubo yokugunyaza iye yaqala ukuphikisana kakhulu emashumini eminyaka amuva. Inkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu, ikakhulukazi, iye yabangela izimpikiswano ezinamandla, njengoba kuboniswa ukuhluleka kokukhishwa kukaRobert Bork ngo- 1987 kanye nokuqinisekiswa kwempumelelo kodwa okunenhlangothi eliqinile kukaBrett Kavaugh no-Amy Coney Barrett. ISigele sinamandla okulahla abashayi-inyosi ngokuqondile − kaningi ngo-ibele noma nge-komiti efile i-cockerbocker ukuze ikhethe umongameli ukuba athathe iziqu ezilinganiselwe kakhulu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSigele singasebenzisa "izingini" ku-mines" ku-omineommes ukukhipha izivumelwano egatsheni lesikhulu.

Amandla Okuthenga

UKhongolo lulawula yonke imali echithwa nguhulumeni ngamandla ayo ukudlulisa izikweletu zemali. Ayikho imali engathathwa kuTsheya ngaphandle kwe-converountal communication. Lokhu kunikeza igatsha lemithetho imishini enkulu phezu kwegatsha eliphetheyo, njengoba lingaxhasa noma linciphise izinhlelo ezithile, izinhlangano, noma ihlonze. Amandla esikhwama semali asetshenziselwa ukulinganisela ukubopha izivumelwano zempi (umzz., iSigqizo se-War Powers Resolution), ukunqanda imikhuba emibi yezinhlangano, nokuvimbela izingxenye zesimiso sohlelo lomongameli. Inqubo yemali ihlanganisa futhi ukubukezwa kwemali kamongameli yonyaka, ivumela abenzi bemithetho ukuba baxoxe futhi basebenzise izinto eziphambili.

Igatsha Eliphethe

Igatsha eliphethe, eliholwa umongameli, linomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa imithetho, ukuphatha inkambiso yakwamanye amazwe, nokuyala ibutho lezempi.

Amandla E - Veto

Umongameli unamandla okukhipha umthetho odluliswe yiziteshi zombili zomkhandlu. Iveto ingashabalaliswa kuphela abantu abangamashumi amathathu nantathu egumbini ngalinye, okunzima ukufinyelela − cishe abangu-101 kuphela kwangaphezu kuka-500 u-vetoes abaye bangena. I-veto ivumela umongameli ukuba avimbele ukumiswa kwemithetho abayibheka njengengahlakaniphile noma njenge-stituni. Ibuye isebenze njengethuluzi eliyithuluzi elikhokhelayo; usongo nje lwe-vetos althinge okunezelweyo umthetho phakathi nezingxoxo.

Kunezinhlobo ezimbili ze-veto: iveto evamile nengena ephaketheni. I-veto evamile ithumela isikhwama emuva eKhonsele kanye nokuphikisa kukamongameli. I-veto ephaketheni yenzeka lapho umongameli engasayini isikweleti phakathi nezinsuku eziyishumi lapho uKhongolo luthulwa, luyibulala ngokuphumelelayo ngaphandle kwe-veto engokomthetho. I-octal protter-veto yavunyelwa kafushane phakathi nawo 1990 kodwa yashaywa yiNkanto ephakeme njengengasayinwanga. Omongameli baye basebenzisa i-veto ukuvimbela ukuchitha izikweletu zemali, umthetho wamalungelo ombango, nokuqulwa kwemithetho yempi, nezinye izindawo.

Ukuhleleka Okuphethe

Umongameli anganikeza iziyalo zesikhulu sokuqondisa ukusebenza kukahulumeni kahulumeni nohlelo ngaphandle kokulinda isenzo sobuphonya. Iziqondiso eziphetheyo zinamandla omthetho kodwa zingaphansi kokubukezwa kokwahlulela futhi zingagumbuqelwa yiSishaya-mthetho (othobela i-veto). Ziye zasetshenziselwa izenzo eziphawulekayo ezinjenge-Emancipation Proclation, ukumiswa kwebutho lezempi, nokumiswa kwezakhiwo zesizwe.

Iziqondiso zesikhulu ziyithuluzi elinamandla lokuba umongameli alungise umthetho ezindaweni lapho uMkhandlu ungathathanga khona isinyathelo noma lapho umongameli enesinqumo. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt wakhipha u-Educatived Order 906, owagunyaza ukufakwa kwamaJapane phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, isinqumo kamuva esilahlwa kodwa esisekelwa ngesikhathi. Muva nje, abaphathi beze basebenzise iziyalezo zokubusa ukuxoxa nabantu abavela kwamanye amazwe, umthetho wendawo ezungezile, kanye nezokunakekela impilo. Ngenxa yokuthi iziqondiso zesikhulu zingashintshwa ngumongameli olandelayo, ngokuvamile bayizilwi zempikiswano yezombangazwe.

Ukushayela Isiqephu Esikhethekile Ucingo

ISiphakamiso II, iSiqeshana sesi-3 soMthetho-sisekelo sinikeza umongameli amandla okuhlanganisa zombili izindlu zobumba "ngezikhathi ezingavamile". Nakuba lombuso ungavamile ukusetshenziswa, uvumela umongameli ukuba aphoqelele uKhongolose ukuba abhekane nezindaba eziphuthumayo lapho kusenkathini yokuthula. Ngokomlando, uMongameli uHarry Truman wabiza isimiso esikhethekile soMkhandlu ngo-1948 ukuze alungise amalungelo omphakathi nokuncipheka komandla. Umbuso uyinhlolo oluqinisekisa igatsha lemithetho yesizwe ukuba lingamane nje lizishaye impikiswano yesizwe ngokuhlala enqabeni.

Amandla EPardon

Umongameli unamandla okuthethelela futhi athathe izigwebo zikahulumeni, ngaphandle kwezimo zokungagunyazi. Leligunya livumela umphathi ukuba abonise isihe, alungise ukungalungi, noma ngisho anikeze ingubo yokuthethelela. AmaPardon angakhishwa ngaphambi kokuba kubekwe noma iziphi izikhalo zobugebengu futhi zingasetshenziswa ekudluliseleni izigwebo. Izibonelo eziphawulekayo zihlanganisa ukuxolelwa kukaRichard Nixon, uMongameli uJimmy Carter's's Confecters forvir arress jamprs, kanye noMongameli uDonald Trump's jamp amacala ahlukene amacala. Interrust ihlola ngokuqondile egatsheni lezahlulelo, njengoba ingazihlulo ingaziphula izivumelwano zobugebengu nezigwebo ezingokomthetho ezenziwa izinkantolo.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela, eliholwa iNkantolo Ephakeme futhi elakhiwe izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi, lichaza imithetho, lixazulula izingxabano, futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana noMthetho - sisekelo. Izinqubo zalo eziyinhloko zokulandisa zingamandla okuhlaziya ukwahlulela nendima yako ekuchazeni umthetho.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kungamandla ezinkantolo okumemezela imithetho nezenzo zokuphatha ngokungekhona kwemithetho. Leligunya lamiswa ecaleni eliwuphawu Marbury v. Madison, lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall agomela khona ukuthi "kuyisifundazwe somnyango wokwahlulela ukuthi umthetho uyini." Kusukela ngalesosikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yabulala amakhulukhulu emithetho kahulumeni nombuso ephikisana noMthetho-Mpaltho.

Impinda yokwahlulela isebenza kokubili ezenzweni zomthetho nezokuphatha. Ngokwesibonelo, kuyintsha encane e-Journawn Sheep & Tube Co. Sayer (1972), iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuthumba kukaMongameli Truman izigayo zensimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea kwakungagunyaziwe. [[FLT:] United States v. Nixon [197], iNkantolo yaphoqa uMongameli uNixon ukuba aphendule amakhasethi, ihosele ekulahleni ukuhoya kwakhe. Muva nje, iNkantolo ibuke iziqondiso zokuhamba kohambo, imithetho yendawo, imithetho yokuthutha. Izekeza itshelo yeze itshelo leze i-fini yokwahlulela phakathi kwezehlulelo lomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho, iqinise iphethe lwezimendezo ezingokomthetho.

Ukuchazwa Kwemithetho

Ijaji lichaza incazelo yemithetho, imithetho, nezivumelwano zikahulumeni. Izinkantolo zincike ezindleleni ezihlukahlukene zokuchaza, kuhlanganise nokubhala (ukugxila encazelweni ecacile yombhalo) kanye ne purposivivism (ucabangela injongo ye-partiom). Isimiso se-stare decis[ sikhuthaza izinkantolo ukuba zilandele isibonelo, zinikeze ukuqina nokubikezela emthethweni.

UKhongolose lungagumbuqela incazelo yokwahlulela ngokumisa umthetho omusha, kodwa lowomthetho ngokwawo ungabhekana nenselele yomthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwenqubo, ukuchazwa komthetho kuhlela izindawo ezinkulu zenkambiso, kusukela emalungelweni omphakathi kuya kumthetho wokungathembi. Ngokwesibonelo, incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yeCommerce Claus emacala afana United States v. Lopez [19595] ilinganisela izinga lamandla kahulumeni. Ngokufanayo, incazelo yeNkantolo yeSiphetho sesibili eCandelo leNgqungquthelayo ye-Columbic [[Filk] v.[FLT][FLT] [2003:]] [2008]) yashaya ukuviswa kwemibhomu eWashington, DC.

Ukuvikelwa Kwamalungelo

Igatsha lokwahlulela lifeza indima ebalulekile ekulondolozeni amalungelo abantu ngokuphaphanyiswa kukahulumeni. Ngezinqumo zalo, iNkantolo iye yandisa inkululeko yomphakathi, isivikelo esincane, futhi yaqinisekisa inqubo efanele kuwo wonke amaMelika. Icala lezwe lihlanganisa Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyaqeda ubandlululo lobuhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, kanye imranda v. Arizona[FLT:] [196], ezasungula imfuneko yamaphoyisa yokwazisa amalungelo abo. INkakhulu ivikela amalungelo enkolo, isebenzisa okuningi kweMibuko yenkululeko yeze kudlulele ngokwe-Greedensie.

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izinqumo ezinkulu mayelana nemfihlo (kuhlanganise namalungelo okukhipha isisu Roe v. Wade neDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[), ukulingana komshado ([[[FLT:]] [[FLT]]]] [obergecrell v. Hodev ] [[FLT]] nenkululeko yokukhuluma, kanye (] ukuhlanganisa i-United.Fl Commotion [[FLD:7]]).

Ukuhlola Nokusebenzisa I - interbranch Ngokuthukela

Ngaphandle kwezinqubo ezingokomthetho zomthetho-sisekelo, igatsha ngalinye lithonya futhi abanye ngezindlela ezithulelweyo. Umbono womphakathi, ukuhlanganiswa kwemithombo yezindaba, amaqembu ezombangazwe, kanye nesimiso sokusetshenziswa kwemali kahulumeni konke ukuhlobana komthetho. Umongameli onezilinganiso eziphansi angakuthola kunzima ukuphoqelela ngomthetho noma iziqinisekiso zomthetho. Izingqungquthela zingasebenzisa amandla okuqondisa ukuze zibangele ukusakazwa okungathandeki. I-judicary, nakuba ifunyaniswe ukuphila, ihlala ingaphansi komthetho womthetho womthetho ogunyaziwe ongaguqula isimo sayo kanye negunya layo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izimiso zombuso zisakaza amandla phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nezwe, zidala olunye uhlangothi lokulandisa. Ohulumeni boMbuso bangabekela imithetho kahulumeni inselele enkantolo, futhi imibuso yeSichibiyelo seshumi ingaphathiswa iUnited States ezindaweni noma abantu. Lokhu kuhlukaniswa okuqinile kwemibuso kuphelelisa ukuhlola okuqondile phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu.

Isiphetho

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni sibalulekile ekulondolozeni idemokrasi futhi sivimbeleni ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla. Igatsha ngalinye linezindlela eziqondile zokunikeza abanye umthwalo wemfanelo, liqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha elinamandla kakhulu. Ukusuka ekuqondiseni kwenhlangano nasekuhlolweni kwe-profector i-veto nohlelo lokwahlulela, lamathuluzi avele emlandweni futhi aqhubeke ehlela indawo yezombangazwe. Ukuqonda lokhu kuhlangana kubalulekile kubafundi nabafundisi ngokufanayo, njengoba kuqokomisa ukubaluleka kokufinyelwa kwezenhlalakahle yomphakathi nokubusa komthetho eUnited States. Izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngobukhulu bemiyalo yezeluleko yezeluleko, inqubo yokwahlulela, nemingcele efanele yamandla embusweni yezombangazwe kubonisa ukuthi isimiso sezombangazwe sisasebenza futhi sisempi.

"Ukunqwabelana kwawo wonke amagunya, i-authoric, isikhulu, ne-jaji, ezandleni ezifanayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngawenye, ambalwa, noma amaningi, futhi noma ufuzo, ukuzihlela, noma ukuzikhetha, kungachazwa ngokufanelekile njengencazelo yobushiqela." — James Madison, Federalist No. 47.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-Constitution ukuze uhlaziye ngokuningiliziwe amandla egatsha ngalinye, i-Oyez isifushaniso se-Marbury v. Madison, kanye nokuhlolwa kwendlu emhlophe kwamagatsha amathathu .