Table of Contents

Isimiso sokwahlulela singenye yezici ezinamandla ezithinta umphakathi wanamuhla. Ngezinqumo eziwuphawu lwezici, abahluleli bachaza izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo, bachaze amalungelo abantu ngabanye, futhi bamise izimiso ezingokomthetho ezilawula izigidi zabantu. Ukuqonda indlela izinkantolo ezilawula ngayo imithetho yethu kudinga ukuba kuhlolwe amacala abalulekile aye aguqula ukwahlulela kwaseMelika futhi aqhubeke ethonya ukucabanga okungokomthetho namuhla.

Kusukela ekumiseni isimiso sokwahlulela esiyisisekelo sokuhlaziya nokuchaza amalungelo omphakathi nenkululeko yomuntu siqu, izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zayichaza ngokuphindaphindiwe imingcele yamandla kahulumeni nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Lamacala amelela okungaphezu kwemithetho engokomthetho, ahlanganisa ukulwela ukulinganisela izifiso eziphikisanayo, avikela amalungelo amancane, futhi achaza ulimi olungokomthetho olubhalwe emakhulwini eminyaka adlule ukuze kuhloselwe izinselele zanamuhla.

Ukuqonda Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela: Isisekelo Samandla Enkantolo

Ukuhlolwa kokwahlulela kungesinye sezici ezihlukile zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wase-United States. Nokho, uMthetho-sisekelo awuwaniki ngokuqondile amandla izinkantolo zikahulumeni okumemezela izenzo zikahulumeni ngaphandle komthetho. Lombuso wavela ngencazelo yokwahlulela futhi uye waba itshe lesisekelo lesimiso somthetho waseMelika.

Umqondo wokuhlola kokwahlulela uvumela izinkantolo ukuba zihlole imithetho edluliswa yizikhulu eziphethe izikhulu ukuba zinqume ukuthi ziyavumelana yini nezimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo. Uma izinkantolo zithola ukuthi umthetho noma isenzo siphula uMthetho-sisekelo, zingawushaya, ziwenze ungabi namthetho. Leligunya libeka ijaji endaweni ekhethekile njengommisi wokugcina wencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo.

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kungasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi amajaji ahlala eyigatsha elilinganayo likahulumeni eduze kwamagatsha emithetho nezikhulu.

Marbury v. Madison (103): Ukumisa iGunya Lokwahlulela

Marbury v. Madison yisinqumo esiyingqophamlando seNkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States esamisa isimiso sokubukeza kokwahlulela. Ngo - 1803, iMarbury ibhekwa njengesinqumo esisodwa esibaluleke kakhulu emthethweni - sisekelo waseMelika.

Indaba Yezombangazwe

Lelicala laqala ekuqaleni kuka-1801 futhi laqala ngenxa yobumbango phakathi kukamongameli ophumayo uJohn Adams nomongameli owayefika uThomas Jefferson. Adams, ilungu leQela lobuFederali, wayelahlekelwe ukukhethwa kukamongameli wase-U.S. ngo-1800 ku-Jefferson, owahola i-Democratic-Republican Party. Ezinsukwini zokugcina ze-democratic. U-democratic Party, u-Adams wamisa amajaji amaningi alwela i-Federalist ukuze alondoloze ithonya lakhe eqenjini le-judiary.

UWilliam Marbury wayephakathi kwalabo abamiswa njengobulungisa bokuthula eSifundeni saseColumbia. Nokho, umsebenzi wakhe awuzange udluliswe ngaphambi kokuba uJefferson athathe isikhundla. Umongameli omusha wayala unobhala wakhe woMbuso, uJames Madison, ukuba agodle izikhomishane ezisele, emisa isiteji sokuxabana komthetho-mthetho.

Iqhinga leBrilliant likaMahluleli omkhulu uMarshall

Ngokombono owabhalwa nguMarshall, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi ukwenqaba kukaMadison ukukhipha ikhomishane kaMarbury kwakungekho emthethweni. Inkantolo futhi yathi kwakufanelekile ukuba inkantolo ikhiphe isikhulu sikahulumeni enkantolo ukuba sidlulisele lo mnyango. Nokho, uMarshall wabhekana nesimo esibucayi sezombangazwe.

Uma iNkantolo yayiyaleza uMadison ukuba adlulise ikhomishane, uJefferson wayengamane angayinaki le mithetho, adalule ubuthakathaka bamajaji. Uma iNkantolo yenqaba ukukhipha lomyalo, bekuyobonakala sengathi igatsha lokwahlulela liboshe ukucindezela kwezikhulu. Marshall wasungula ikhambi elagwema zombili izihibe ngesikhathi esifanayo lisandisa amandla okwahlulela.

Ukuhlola umthetho weSishaya-mthetho kwakwenze ukuba kuchazwe ukubusa kweNkantolo Ephakeme − isehlulelo 13 soMthetho weJadicary ka-1789) lenkantolo yathola ukuthi loMthetho wawunwebe incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme ngaphezu kwalokho okwakubekwe ekuqaleni eMthethweni we-U.S. inkantolo yabe isibulala ingxenye engu-13 yalesisenzo, imemezela ukuthi izinkantolo zaseMelika zinamandla okulahla imithetho eziyitholayo ephula umthetho.

Umphumela Ohlala Njalo

Yathola ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. uwumthetho wangempela, hhayi nje inkulumo yezimiso zezombangazwe nemibono. Yasiza futhi ekuchazeni umngcele phakathi kwamagatsha aphethe ahlukene angokomthetho nomthetho-mthetho kahulumeni kahulumeni.

KuMarbury v. Madison, wanquma ngo - 1803, iNkantolo Ephakeme, okokuqala, yalahla isenzo soMkhandlu njengesivumelwano. Lesi sinqumo sadala imfundiso yokubukezwa kokwahlulela futhi samisa iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States njengomtolikisi oyinhloko woMthetho-sisekelo. Isinqumo saso sabekwa ekutheni uMarshall waqinisekisa amandla okwahlulela ngesikhathi esisodwa kuyilapho efinyelela umphumela uJefferson ayengawamukela.

Nakuba kungekho mthetho owathi awuvumelani nemithetho kwaze kwaba yilapho kukhishwa isinqumo sikaDred Scott ngo - 1857, indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme yokuchitha imithetho kahulumeni nekahulumeni ephikisana noMthetho - sisekelo ayikaze ibekelwe inselele engathi sína. uMarbury wamisa inqubo eye yahlala ikhona amakhulu amabili eminyaka futhi yathonya izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo emhlabeni wonke.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Dismantling Secovation

Inkantolo ehlangene yagumbuqela uPlessy no Ferguson futhi yathi imithetho kahulumeni efuna noma evumela izikole ezihlukaniswe ngokohlanga iphula i-Encial Protection Claus eMpanziswaneni weshumi nane. INkantolo yasho ngokudume kakhulu ukuthi "Izikhungo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo.

Ukushintsha "Ukweqisa Kodwa Kuyalingana"

Isinqumo seBrown simenyezelwa njengesinqumo esiphawulekayo emlandweni weNkantolo Ephakeme, sigumbuqele uPlesty v. Ferguson (1896) owadala "imfundiso ehlukene kodwa elinganayo". KuPlesty, iNkantolo yathi nakuba umthetho weLouisiana wawufuna ukuba abagibeli besitimela bahlukaniswe ngokusekelwe emhlangani, kwakungekho ukulahlwa kweSichibiyelo seSiphendulo se 145 seSivikeli sika-Claus Claus esaba khona isikhathi eside kakhulu uma indawo yokuhlala ikhona "ehlukene, kodwa iyalingana"

Cishe amashumi ayisithupha eminyaka, isinqumo sePlesby sanikeza izaba ezingokomthetho zokwahlukanisa izinhlanga kulo lonke elase-United States. Izikole, ezokuhamba, izitolo zokudlela, amahhotela, futhi cishe zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi ezazisebenza ngaphansi kwezimiso ezihlukene, ikakhulukazi eNingizimu. "Imfundiso ehlukene kodwa elinganayo" yavumela amaqembu ukuba alondoloze izinhlanga lapho ethi zivumelana nomthetho.

Umgwaqo Oya EBrown

Icala leBrown eqinisweni lahlanganisa amacala amaningana avela ezifundeni ezihlukene, zonke izigaba zesikole eziyinselele.

INaACP Legal Defense Fund, eyayiholwa uThurfall Marshall (owayezoba uJustice wokuqala weNkantolo ePhakeme yase-Afrika), yasungula icebo elingokomthetho elibanzi. Banikeza ubufakazi besayensi yezenhlalo obubonisa ukuthi ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga kwalimaza izingane zaseMelika e - Afrika, kululaza umbono wokuthi izakhiwo ezihlukene zingake zilingane ngempela.

Ukuguqula Umphakathi WaseMelika

Ngokugumbuqela lemfundiso, iBrown Court yasiza ekumiseni umzabalazo wamalungelo abantu nokuhlangana kwezwe lonke.Isinqumo sasimelela isikhathi esihlasimulisayo emlandweni waseMelika, nakuba ukusetshenziswa kwaso kwabonakala kuyinselele futhi kuphikisana.

Izifunda eziningi zaseNingizimu zahlanganyela "ekumelani nokulwa okungalawuleki," enqaba ukuvumelana nemithetho yokucwasa. Ezinye izifunda zavala izikole zomphakathi ngokuphelele kunokuba zihlangane. Ngezinye izikhathi amabutho ahlangene ayedingeka ukuze abophe iziyalezo zenkantolo, njengalapho uMongameli Eisenhower wathumela i-101 Airborne Division ku-Little Rock, Arkansas ngo-1957 ukuvikela abafundi abayisishiyagalo se-Amerika abangamashumi ayisishiyagalolunye base-Central High School.

Naphezu kokumelana, uBrown washintsha kakhulu isimo somthetho. Yathola ukuthi i-Uncime Protection Claus yenqabela ubandlululo lwesizwe futhi yanikeza izikhali ezingokomthetho kumzabalazo wamalungelo omphakathi. Izimiso zesinqumo zadlulela ngalé kwemfundo ukuze zibeke inselele ukucwasana kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ukuvikela Abavikeli Besigebengu

Miranda mayelana no-Arizona (1966): Amaphoyisa kumelwe azise abasolwa ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokuphenywa. INkantolo Ephakeme yavuma, iphethe ukuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe azise abasolwa ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokuba baphenywe. Lelicala ngokuyisisekelo lashintsha izinqubo zokugcinwa komthetho kulo lonke elase-United States.

Isizinda Secala

Ngemva kwamahora ephenywa amaphoyisa, u-Ernesto Miranda wavuma ukuthi udlwengule futhi uthumba. Lapho kuqulwa icala, wazama ukuvimbela ukuvuma kwakhe izono, ethi akalulekwanga amalungelo akhe okululeka nokuthula. Icala likaMiranda laphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo ngokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa ngokulunga namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo.

INkantolo yathola ukuthi iziNkantolo ZesiHlanzo Sesihlanu Nesesithupha zidinga ukuba amaphoyisa azise abantu abasejele ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula futhi basizwe ummeli.

Isixwayiso Semirnda

Isinqumo saveza lokho okwabizwa ngokuthi "Malungelo kaMiranda" noma "isixwayiso sikaMiranda" ngaphambi kokuba aphenye isigwebo sejaji, amaphoyisa kumelwe azise ukuthi:

  • Banelungelo lokuthula
  • Noma yini abayishoyo ingasetshenziswa enkantolo
  • Banelungelo kummeli
  • Uma bengenayo imali yokuthola ummeli, kumiswa omunye wabo
  • Bangabiza la malungelo noma nini lapho bephenywa

Lezi zixwayiso ziye zagxila kakhulu esikweni laseMelika kangangokuthi zibonakala ngokushesha ezinhlelweni eziningi zethelevishini nakumabhayisikobho.

Ukulinganisela Ukuphoqelelwa Komthetho Namalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

UMiranda wavusa impikiswano enkulu ngokulinganisela okufanele phakathi kokugcinwa komthetho nokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Ucwaningo lubonise ukuthi izixwayiso zeMiranda azinakuphumelela kakhulu ekubekeni umthetho. Abasolwa abaningi basanikeza amaphoyisa izinkulumo, futhi ukuvuma izono kuseyithuluzi elibalulekile lokuhlola. Nokho, isinqumo esithola izivikelo ezicacile ezisiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthembeka kokuvuma izono nokuvikela ekuxhashazweni.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yalungisa izimfuneko zikaMiranda ezimweni ezilandelayo, yaphendula imibuzo yokuthi uwinwa kwezingane luqala nini, ukuthi kuyini ukuphenywa kwelungelo lokuhlala nabantwana nokuthi yini esolekayo engawaphazamisa kanjani amalungelo abo. Naphezu kwalokhu kulungisa, isimiso esiyisisekelo sihlala siqinile: okusolwayo kumelwe kwaziswe ngamalungelo awo omthetho ngokomthetho ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola ilungelo.

U-Dobbs no-Jackson (2022): Impikiswano yamalungelo okukhipha izisu

Imithetho evimbela ikhono lowesifazane lokukhipha isisu ngaphambi kokukhishwa kwesisu ayivunyelwe. Imithetho eminingi phakathi nomlingani wokuqala ayivunyelwe, futhi imingcele yempilo ehlobene ne-ocester. Lokhu kwakuwukugcinwa kweRoe v. Wade, esinye sezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ephikisana kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika.

Isinqumo Somcimbi Wokuqala

INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi imithetho enjalo iphula ilungelo loMthetho-sisekelo lokufihla imfihlo. Isinqumo samisa uhlelo lomthetho-mthetho lwamalungelo okukhipha isisu olusekelwe elungelweni lomuntu siqu, iNkantolo eyayiwuqaphele ngaphambili emacaleni ahilela ukuvimbela inzalo nokuhlela umkhaya.

IRoe Court yakha uhlelo olulula kakhulu lokuhlola imithetho yokukhipha isisu. Phakathi nenqumo yokuqala, isinqumo sokukhipha isisu sashiyelwa owesifazane nodokotela wakhe. Phakathi ne-meter yesibili, izifundazwe zingalawula ukukhishwa kwesisu ukuze zivikele impilo kamama. Kusukela eqebelelweni lesithathu kuphela, ngemva kokukhubazeka kwesifo sombungu, zingavimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu ngaphandle uma kudingekile ukulondoloza ukuphila noma impilo kamama.

Amashumi Eminyaka Empikiswano

I-roe v. Wade yaba isikhungo sempikiswano yezombangazwe nempucuko yaseMelika cishe iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu. Isinqumo sakhuthaza kokubili inhlangano yeze-procoice, eyayivikela amalungelo okukhishwa kwezisu njengebalulekile ekuzilawuleni nasekulinganani kwabesifazane, kanye nomzabalazo wezokukhipha isisu, owawubheka ukukhishwa kwesisu njengokungalungile ngokokuziphatha futhi wafuna ukugumbuqela i-Roe.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezilandelayo zalungisa uhlelo luka-Roe. Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) esikhundleni somklamo onciphileyo wafakwa "umthwalo ongafanele", ivumela izifundazwe ukuba zikwazi ukulawula ukukhipha isisu kuyilapho zilondoloza ilungelo eliyinhloko lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu ngaphambi kokuba zikwazi ukuphuma.

Isinqumo Sababi

Imithetho ethathelwe imingcele ka-Planneded Parenthood v. Casey (1992) futhi yabuswa ngokugcwele yi-Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) NgoJune 2022, iNkantolo Ephakeme yagumbuqela uRoe v. Wade esinqumweni seDobbs, isusa ilungelo lomthetho sisekelo kahulumeni lokukhipha isisu.

AmaDobb amaningi ayekholelwa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awulinikezi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu nokuthi igunya lokulawula ukukhishwa kwezisu kufanele libuyiselwe ezindaweni nakumeleli abakhethiwe babantu. Lesi sinqumo sasimelela esinye sezenzakalo eziyivelakancane lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yawulawula khona ngokuphandle umthetho omkhulu owawukhona amashumi eminyaka.

Isinqumo sasheshe sashintsha isimo somthetho. Izwe lathola igunya lokunqabela noma ukuvimbela kakhulu ukukhishwa kwezisu, futhi abaningi bakwenza ngokushesha. Ezinye izizwe zashukumiseleka ukuba zivikele futhi zithuthukise ukukhishwa kwezisu. Isinqumo sasusa umthetho - sisekelo wokwenza isinqumo sokukhipha isisu esinqunywe izinkantolo ukuba siphendule umbuzo wezombangazwe onqunywe izishaya - mthetho nabavoti.

Izimpawu Ezengeziwe Ezathonya Umthetho WaseMelika

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Federal Supremacy

INkantolo yathi uKhongolose wayenawo amandla okumisa ibhange lesizwe ngaphansi "komthetho-mthetho odingekile nofanelekile" we-U.S. Inkantolo yanquma futhi ukuthi imithetho ye-United States emisa imithetho kahulumeni futhi ngenxa yalokho, uhulumeni awunakukhokha ibhange lesizwe.

Isinqumo se McCulloch samisa izimiso ezimbili ezibalulekile zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ezisaqhubeka namuhla: izimpawu zemibuso nobukhulu bombuso. Lendaba yacacisa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla angaphezu kwalawo ashiwo ngokucacile eMthethweni-sisekelo nalelo mithetho kahulumeni ithatha indawo yokuqala kunomthetho kahulumeni ophikisanayo.

UGideon (1963): Ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko

INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi iSichibiyelo sesithupha selungelo lokusiza ekunikezeni iseluleko sisebenza ekuqulweni kwecala lombuso nokuthi “ababenqabeli izigebengu badinga ukugcinwa, hhayi ukunethezeka. ” Lesinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa abanecala banelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko esimisiwe.

Icala laqinisekisa ukuthi ubumpofu babungeke buvimbele abamangalelwa abangokomthetho abanele, okuyimfuneko eyinhloko yokuquliswa kwecala elingakhethi.

UDes Moines (1969): Umfundi Amalungelo Okukhuluma

INkantolo Ephakeme yathi abafundi abawachithi amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo enkululeko yokukhuluma... esangweni lesikole. Lelicala lavela lapho abafundi begqoka izibopho ezimnyama esikoleni ukuze baphikise iMpi yaseVietnam futhi belekwe ngenxa yokwenza kanjalo.

INkantolo yathola ukuthi inkulumo yabafundi yayingavinjelwa kuphela uma empeleni iphazamisa inqubo yemfundo. Ngenxa yokuthi kwakungekho bufakazi bokuphazamisa okunjalo, isikole sasiphula inkululeko yokuthula Yokuqala yokukhuluma. UTinker wasungula ukuthi abafundi balondoloza amalungelo omthetho ngokomthetho esikoleni, nakuba lawomalungelo engalinganiswa ngokumelene nezithunywa zemfundo zezikole.

United States v. Nixon (1974): Umongameli

U.S. v. Nixon (1974) Ukubambelela: UMongameli akawudluli umthetho. Lelicala lavela ehlazweni leWatergate lapho uMongameli Nixon enqaba ukuphendula amakhasethi ezingxoxo zeWhite House, ethi unelungelo lokubusa.

INkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngazwi linye yakwenqaba ngokuphelele ukusho kukaNixon ilungelo lokuphatha, iveza ukuthi nakuba umongameli enelungelo elithile lokuxhumana okuyimfihlo, kumelwe athole umvuzo lapho uphenyo lobugebengu ludinga ubufakazi. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu, ngisho nomongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho − isimiso esiyisisekelo sokubusa ngentando yeningi.

Nixon walalela umyalo weNkantolo, futhi amakhasethi akhululwa embula ukuhileleka kwakhe ekusithekeni kwe-Watergate eqhekeka. Wayeka ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, wamenza umongameli okuwukuphela komongameli wase-U.S. waphuma esikhundleni. Icala labonisa indima yejaji ekuhloleni amandla okulawula nokugcina umthetho.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo

Umthetho wase-Connecticut owephula umthetho ukusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo kwemibhangqwana eshadile awuvumelani nomthetho-mthetho ngoba wonke amaMelika anelungelo elivikelwe ngokomthetho-mthetho lokuba asese. Lesi sinqumo samisa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokufihla imfihlo, ngisho noma igama elithi "umthetho" lingaveli eMthethweni.

INkantolo yathola ukuthi izinguquko ezihlukahlukene zomthetho-sisekelo zakha "izigwegwe ze-penumbras" noma izifunda zomuntu siqu. Lelilungelo lomuntu siqu laba isisekelo sezinqumo zamuva ezihilela amalungelo okuzala, kuhlanganise ne-Roe v.Wade. Isinqumo seGriswold saqaphela ukuthi izinqumo ezithile zomuntu siqu zibaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba uhulumeni akanakuziphazamisa ngaphandle kokuzithethelela.

Izimiso Ezingokomthetho Eziyinhloko Ezimiswe Yizici Eziphawulekayo

Amacala avelele okukhulunywe ngawo ngenhla aveza izimiso eziningana eziyisisekelo eziqhubeka zibumba umthetho waseMelika:

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Izinkantolo zinegunya lokuhlola ukuthi imithetho nezenzo zikahulumeni ziyavumelana yini noMthetho-sisekelo. Lombuso uvumela abahluleli ukuba basebenze njengenhlolo - phetho emagatsheni omthetho nabaphathi, baqinisekise ukuthi zonke izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana nezimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo. Ukubukeza komthetho-mthetho wezomthetho-sisekelo kwabe sekuyisici esichazayo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika futhi kuye kwathonya izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo emhlabeni wonke.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo se-Unimetic Protection Claus sidinga ukuba imithetho iphathe abantu abasendaweni efanayo ngokungakhethi. Lesi simiso sinqabela ukucwaswa kobandlululo olungokomthetho futhi siye sasetshenziswa ekumiseni imithetho ehlukanisayo esekelwe ngokohlanga, ubulili, nezinye izici. Ukuhlolwa okulinganayo kudinga izinkantolo ukuhlola ukuthi izinhlelo zikahulumeni zifeza izinjongo ezingokomthetho nokuthi zihlonyiselwe ukufezeka lezo zinjongo.

Amalungelo Ezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Nakuba ingashiwonga ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo, ilungelo lokufihla izindaba zomuntu siqu livikela izinqumo ezithile zomuntu siqu ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni. Lelilungelo lihlanganisa izinqumo eziphathelene nokuvimbela inzalo, ubudlelwane bomkhaya, nezinye izindaba eziyimfihlo.

Iqhinga Nestartic Deccis

Izinqumo zenkantolo zimisa izibonelo eziqondisa amacala esikhathi esizayo. Imfundiso yokubheka izinto (ngesiLatini esisho "ukuma ngezinto ezinqunywe") ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki nokubikezela enkantolo ngokufuna ukuba izinkantolo zilandele izinqumo zangaphambili ezisingatha izindaba ezifanayo. Nokho, izinkantolo zingazilawula lapho ziphetha ngokuthi izinqumo zangaphambili zazinqunywe ngokungalungile noma zingabe zisakhonza ubulungisa.

Umzimba ozimele

Lapho imithetho kahulumeni nombuso ingqubuzana, umthetho kahulumeni ukhona ngaphansi komthetho ka-Suprematy Claus woMthetho-sisekelo. Lesi simiso siqinisekisa ukusebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni ngokufanayo kuzo zonke izifundazwe futhi sivimbela imibuso ekululazeni izimiso zikahulumeni. Nokho, amazwe alondoloza igunya elibalulekile ezindaweni lapho uMthetho-sisekelo unganikezi igunya kuhulumeni wombuso.

Inhlanganiso

IziNguqulo zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ziqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke unciphe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Lemfuneko ihlanganisa kokubili inqubo efanele (izinqubo zendiza) nenqubo efanelekile (ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo). Inqubo engokomthetho isebenza njengesivikelo esibucayi esimelene nesenzo sikahulumeni esiwumthetho owenqaba.

Indlela Izinkantolo Eziwuchaza Ngayo Umthetho - sisekelo

Ukuqonda indlela izinkantolo ezilawula ngayo imithetho yethu kudinga ukuba kuhlolwe izindlela abahluleli abazisebenzisayo ukuze bachaze umbhalo womthetho - sisekelo.

Ukudazulula

Abahluleli bezobunkqaba bafuna ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala − mhlawumbe inhloso yabafaki-zincwadi noma ukuqonda komphakathi umbhalo lapho uthathwa. Abaqondisi bakuqala baphikisa ngokuthi lendlela inqanda ukwahlulela futhi igcina ukwethembeka kuMthetho-sisekelo njengoba kulotshiwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukwenziwa komthetho-sisekelo kungaveza imiphumela engqubuzana nezindinganiso zanamuhla futhi ukuthi ukunquma injongo yakuqala kuvame ukuba nzima noma akunakwenzeka.

Umthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo

Abahleli bomthetho-sisekelo babheka uMthetho-sisekelo njengencwadi enamandla encazelo yayo ishintsha izimo zezenhlalo nezindinganiso. Baphikisa ngokuthi abahleli babhala uMthetho-sisekelo ngokuphandle ukuze bavumele ukujwayela izimo ezingalindelekile. Abagxeki bakhathazeka ngokuthi lendlela yenza abahluleli banqume kakhulu futhi ibavumela ukuba baphoqelele izintando zabo siqu kunokuba basebenzise imiyalo engokomthetho.

Ukubhala ngokulotshiwe

Izazi zemibhalo zigxila encazelweni evamile yombhalo womthetho - sisekelo, zihlola amagama ngokwawo kunokuba zihlole izinjongo noma imiphumela ebanzi. Lendlela igcizelela ukuthi abahluleli kufanele bachaze umthetho njengolotshiwe, hhayi njengoba bengase bafune ukuba ube yiwo.

I - pragmatism

Abahluleli abanonya bacabangela imiphumela engokoqobo yezinqumo zabo, befuna imiphumela esebenza kahle ezweni langempela. Bangase basebenzise izindlela eziningi zokuchaza nokulinganisela okuncintisanayo ukuze bafinyelele imiphumela enengqondo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukushaya ngendiva kunikeza isiqondiso esinganele futhi kuvumela abahluleli ukuba bathathe isikhundla sezimiso zabo ukuze bahlole umthetho.

Indima Yemibono Ephikisanayo

Nakuba imibono eminingi imisa isiqalo esiqinile, imibono ephikisanayo ifeza indima ebalulekile ekuthuthukiseni umthetho. Ukungavumelani nokunye ukuchaza okuphicayo futhi kugxeke ukucabanga kweningi. Igcina izimpikiswano ezingase zamukelwe ezicaleni zesikhathi esizayo futhi ngezinye izikhathi zishintshele ezimfundisweni.

Izimpikiswano ezidumile ekugcineni ziye zaba izikhundla eziningi. UMahluleli uJohn Marshall Harlan uphikisano oluzimele kwethi Plessy v. Ferguson, ephikisa ngokuthi "Umthetho-sisekelo wethu uyisifebe-mbala," walwelwa lapho uBrown v. Ibhodi lezemfundo liphenduleka cishe eminyakeni engamashumi ayisithupha kamuva. UJaji Louis Brandeis uphikisa ukungaboni kwezindaba zomuntu siqu nenkulumo ekhululekile yathonya izenzakalo zemfundiso zamuva.

Ukungavumelani nentando yeningi kufeza nemisebenzi yentando yeningi ngokwenza ukungezwani kokwahlulela kube sobala futhi kunikeze ukwaziswa okuzosiza umphakathi ukuba uphikisane ngencazelo yomthetho - sisekelo.

Ithonya Lenkantolo

Uhlelo lweNkantolo Ephakeme luzithonya kakhulu izinqumo zayo. Abameli bamisa izahlulelo, futhi iSigele siyaziqinisekisa, senza inqubo yokumisa ibe yeyezombangazwe kakhulu. Amajaji asebenza ukuphila (ngokuthi "ukuziphatha okuhle"), abavumela ukuba bazimele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe kodwa futhi asho ukuthi ukumiswa komuntu ngamunye kungamisa umthetho womthetho wezomthetho amashumi amaningi eminyaka.

Ukulinganisela kwemibono yeNkantolo kuthinta ukuvumelana kwemibono evumelanayo, ukuzwa iziphi izimpikiswano, indlela ezihlanganisa ngayo imibuzo engokomthetho, nokuthi imiphi imiphumela efinyelela kuyo. Inkantolo elawulwa abahluleli abathatha indinganiso eqinile ivame ukufinyelela iziphetho ezihlukene kunomuntu obuswa izahluleli ezikhululekile, ikakhulukazi ezindabeni eziphikisanayo njengokukhipha isisu, ukuvuma, izenzo, amalungelo ezibhamu, kanye nobukhulu bamandla kahulumeni.

Nokho, abahluleli abavoti ngaso sonke isikhathi ngokubikezela. Ngezinye izikhathi bayabamangaza omongameli ababamisayo, futhi amacala ngamanye angaveza imifelandawonye engalindelekile. Imibono yamaJaji ingashintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ukuhlaziywa komthetho kweqa izigaba zemibono.

Imingcele Yamandla Okwahlulela

Naphezu kwegunya lejaji elibalulekile, izinkantolo zibhekene nokulinganiselwa okukhulu. Zinganquma kuphela amacala angempela nezimpikiswano, zingaphikiseli imibono ewubufakazi. Zintula amandla okuqinisekisa ukusebenza futhi zincike ekuxhumeni kwegatsha elikhulu ukuze zifeze izinqumo zazo. Kumelwe zicabangele ukuthi amacala akhona "ekunqumeni" nokuthi amaqembu akhona "ewawamele" ukukhohliswa.

Izinkantolo futhi zisebenzisa "ukuvimbela ukunqanda umthetho-mthetho" ngokugwema imibuzo lapho amacala enziwa ngezizathu ezimxinwa. Zicabanga ukuthi imithetho iwumthetho-sisekelo futhi idinga ubufakazi obucacile ngaphambi kokuyibulala. Lokhu kulinganiselwa okuzicebelayo kusiza ekulondolozeni ukufaneleka kwejaji futhi kugcine inhloko ngokomthetho yalo esemthethweni emacaleni lapho ukungenela komthetho-mthetho kudingekile ngempela.

IziKhomishane nezifundazwe zingasabela ezinqumweni zenkantolo ngokulungisa umthetho - sisekelo, nakuba lenqubo inzima ngamabomu. IziKhomishane zingalinganisela futhi ukubusa kwenkantolo kahulumeni ezimweni ezithile futhi zingaphumelela ukunqanda izinqumo zokuchaza umthetho ngokumisa umthetho omusha.

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Izimpikiswano eziningana zanamuhla zibonisa izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo mayelana nendlela izinkantolo okufanele ziyilolonge ngayo imithetho yethu.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Ubuchwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe bunezinselele eziqanjiwe zomthetho - sisekelo. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi izigwebo Zesine zisebenza kanjani ekuhloleni ngokungacabangeli ukwaziswa okusendaweni yocingo, ukuxhumana kwama-imeyili, nezinye izinto ezisetshenziswayo.

Ukukhuluma Ngokukhululeka Enkathini Yezinombolo

Iziteshi zezokuxhumana ziphakamisa imibuzo ngezindlela zokuvikela inkululeko yokukhuluma. Izinkantolo kumelwe zixoxe ngokuthi izimiso zeSichibiyelo Sokuqala zisebenza kanjani ekulinganiseni ukulinganisela kwezinkampani ezizimele, imithetho kahulumeni yokukhuluma nge-intanethi, nokusakazeka kwezindaba ezingelona iqiniso. Lezi zindaba ziphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo mayelana nentando yeningi, inkulumo yeningi, kanye nendlela izimiso ezisebenza ngayo ekulinganiseni kwemiqondo.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo Nomthetho Wokukhetha

Izinkantolo zifeza izindima ezibaluleke kakhulu ezimpikiswaneni zokhetho, ukuphendula imibuzo ephathelene nezinqubo zokuvota, ukuvuselelwa kwezimali, umkhankaso, nokufakwa kwezezimali. Lamacala athinta ngokuqondile ukuthatha isigaba sentando yeningi nokumelelwa kwezombangazwe. Izinqumo zamuva ziye zakhuluma ngezimfuneko zokuvota, nobukhulu be-Voting Rights Act.

Umbuso Ophethe

Izinhlangano eziphethe zisebenzisa igunya eliphawulekayo lokuqondisa, ziphakamisa imibuzo ngokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso nokulandisa ngentando yeningi. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi kungakanani ukuthatha indiva ukunikeza izincazelo zezinhlangano zezimiso nezimiso. Amacala amuva aphinde ahlola izimfundiso eziqinile ezilawula ukubukezwa kwezenzo zezinhlangano.

Ukubaluleka Kokufunda Ngokusemthethweni

Ukuqonda amacala abalulekile enkantolo nezimiso ezizimisayo kubalulekile ukuze umuntu abe isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Lezi zinqumo zithinta izici eziyisisekelo zokuphila kwansuku zonke − kusukela ezikoleni kuya ezivikelweni ezitholakalayo lapho zibekwa icala lobugebengu, kusukela ekutholeni ukwaziswa komuntu siqu kuya emakhonweni okuhlanganyela ezimisweni zentando yeningi.

Ukufunda nokubhala kwasemthethweni kwenza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuhlaziya izinqumo zokwahlulela ngokucophelela, zihlanganyele ngokunengqondo ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nokuchazwa komthetho - sisekelo, futhi zibheka izikhulu ezikhethiwe njengezinecala ngokumiswa kwazo kokwahlulela.

Izinkantolo zizoqhubeka zilungisa imithetho yethu njengoba zisingatha izinselele ezintsha futhi zihlola kabusha izimfundiso ezimisiwe. Amacala okuxoxwa ngawo lapha amelela ingxenye encane yezinqumo ezibalulekile eziye zachaza umthetho - sisekelo waseMelika.

Imithombo Yemfundo Eqhubekayo

Kulabo abanesithakazelo ekuhloleni amacala eNkantolo Ephakeme ngokujule kakhulu, kunemithombo eminingi. Iwebhusayithi yase-U.S. inikeza izinto zokufundisa ezimayelana namacala abalulekile. Iproject inikeza ukuqopha okuqoshiwe komsindo kwempikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo necala eliningiliziwe. [[FLT:] [FLT]] inikeza ukuhlaziyelwa okucutshulweyo kwemizwayo kwemishongo edluliselweyo kanye nemininingwane.

Izincwadi zezezimali zesikole, omagazini bezomthetho, nezincwadi ezibhalelwe izibukeli ezivamile zinikeza ukuhlaziywa okujulile kwemfundiso engokomthetho - sisekelo. Izinhlangano ezisezinhlangothini zezombangazwe zinikeza imithombo yemfundo ebonisa amafilosofi ahlukahlukene achazayo. Ukuhlanganyela ngemibono ehlukahlukene kuyasiza ekuqondeni okuhlukile kwemibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi engokomthetho - sisekelo.

Isiphetho: Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okuqhubekayo koMthetho - sisekelo

Indima yesimiso sokwahlulela ekulolongeni imithetho yethu ibonisa isimo esinamandla sokubusa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Kusukela ku-Marbury v. Ukumiswa kukaMadison kokuhlola kokwahlulela kunezimpikiswano zamanje eziphathelene nemfihlo yamanani namalungelo okuvota, izinkantolo ziye zaqhubeka zichaza izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ukuxazulula izinselele.

Amacala avelele ahlolwa lapha abonisa indlela izinqumo zokwahlulela ezingaguqula ngayo umphakathi, zivikele amalungelo abantu futhi zichaze imingcele yamandla kahulumeni.

Ukuqonda lamacala nezimiso azenzayo kunika izakhamuzi amandla okuhlanganyela embusweni wentando yeningi. Kunikeza umongo wokuhlola izimpikiswano zamanje ezingokomthetho nokulindela izenzakalo zesikhathi esizayo. Njengoba izinkantolo ziqhubeka zihlela imithetho yethu, ukubopha izinqumo ngolwazi kusebalulekile ekulondolozeni imithetho, hhayi eyezakhamuzi, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo somthetho - sisekelo sihlala izizukulwane ezizayo.

Amacala okuxoxwa ngawo lapha − kusukela ekusunguleni ukubukezweni kokwahlulela kuya ekuvikeleni amalungelo omphakathi, kusukela ekuchazeni inqubo yobugebengu kuya ekusingatheni inkululeko yokuzala − kugcizelela ithonya elikhulu izinkantolo ezinalo ekuphileni kwaseMelika. Zisikhumbuza ukuthi ukuchazwa komthetho - sisekelo kuhilela ukukhetha okunzima ngezindinganiso zokuncintisana nokuthi abantu abanengqondo bangaphikisana ngokuthi bangalinganisela kanjani inkululeko, ukulingana, ukulondeka nezinye izithakazelo eziyisisekelo.

Njengoba kuvela izinselele ezintsha futhi izimo zezenhlalo zishintsha, izinkantolo zizoqhubeka zichaza umbhalo womthetho - sisekelo obhalwe emakhulwini eminyaka adlule ezimweni zanamuhla. Izimiso ezibekwe ezimweni ezivelele zinikeza isiqondiso, kodwa ukusebenzisa kwazo izimo ezintsha kudinga ukuhlaziywa nokucatshangisiswa kokwahlulela okuhluzekile. Ngokuqonda indlela izinkantolo eziye zaguqula ngayo imithetho yethu esikhathini esidlule, singayiqonda kangcono indima yazo ekuxazululeni imibuzo engokomthetho - sisekelo yanamuhla neyomzukusasa.