INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States imile njengegunya lokwahlulela eliphakeme kakhulu ezweni, isebenzisa amandla amakhulu ukubumba umthetho nenhlangano yaseMelika. Unyaka ngamunye, lenkantolo enezitho ezingu-9 ithola izinkulungwane zezicelo zokuhlola amacala, kodwa imbalwa kuphela ekhethayo ewenza ngenqubo yokukhetha enzima. Ukuqonda indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme enquma ngayo amacala amakhulu enikeza ukuqonda okubalulekile esimisweni sokwahlulela saseMelika nezimiso zomthetho ngokomthetho ezilawula idemokrati. Le siqondiso esibanzi sihlola zonke izigaba zesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme, kusukela ekuceleni kokuqala ukuya embonweni okunyathelisiwe.

Indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme Esimisweni Sezomthetho saseMelika

INkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengommeli wokugcina womthetho kahulumeni nomthetho - sisekelo eUnited States. Nakuba iNkantolo ingase ibe eyokuqala ukuzwa icala ezimweni eziyivelakancane njengezimpikiswano phakathi kwezizwe, ngokuvamile ilinganiselwe ekulaleleni izikhalo ezivela kwezinye izinkantolo. Amacala angase eze eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. yeziNkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala, ezwe ukudluliswa kokuqala kwecala, noma enkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni uma icala lixhomeke embuzweni womthetho kahulumeni.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo zinemiphumela enzima edlula kakhulu amalungu ahilelekile. Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha isinqumo, imisa isibonelo esingokomthetho sokuthi izinkantolo eziphansi ezweni lonke kumelwe zilandele. Lezi zinqumo zingathinta izigidi zabantu baseMelika, zithonya yonke into ebangelwa amalungelo okuvota kanye nokunakekela impilo kumthetho wobugebengu nesivikelo sendawo ezungezile. Izincazelo zeNkantolo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo nemithetho kahulumeni ziba umthetho wezwe, zenze ukukhethwa kwecala nezimiso zokwenza izinqumo kube okubaluleke kakhulu ekusebenzeni kwentando yeningi yaseMelika.

Ukuqonda Isicelo Sokufuna I - dertiori

Uhambo oluya eNkantolo Ephakeme luqala ngesicelo esingokomthetho esaziwa njengesicelo se-certiorari. Igama elithi certiorari livela eLaw Latin, elisho "ukutshelwa ngokugcwele," futhi i-creartari yenkantolo ephansi ikhipha imvume yokudlulisela umbhalo wayo ecaleni ukuze inkantolo ephakeme ikwazi ukulibukeza. Icala alikwazi ukudluliswa njengendaba yesokudla, lidluliselwe eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S., ngakho iqembu elifuna ukudlulisa icala eNkantolweni Ephakeme lisuka esinqumweni esiphansi kumelwe lifake icala lenkantolo ephansi.

Uma ukulahlekelwa kunqunywa yinkantolo yecala engokomthetho yecala lecala noma inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu kahulumeni ifuna ukuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ilinganisele, kuthatha i-"pectiveri" noma "isicelo" sokucela amajaji" ukubukeza, zwa impikiswano yomlomo futhi ekugcineni ukhiphe isinqumo ngenzuzo yecala. Inkantolo ephakeme ifuna ukubukezwa kwecala kwalenkantolo, kanti uhlangothi oluwinayo lwaziwa ngokuthi "i-pecritioner," kanti uhlangothi oluwinayo lwaziwa ngokuthi i-"e -"oficent"" Ngemva kokufaka isicelo sayo, iphendulile ithuba lokubhala ucingo olufushane ngokuphikisa, ukuphikisa ukuthi kungani iNkantolo Ephakeme ingaziwa njengecala.

Yini Eyenza Icala "Ikhothathi"?

Akuzona zonke izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezigunyaza ukunaka kweNkantolo Ephakeme. INkantolo ngokuvamile ilalela amacala uma icala lingaba nokubaluleka kwesizwe, lingavumelana nezinqumo eziphikisanayo ezinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni, futhi/noma lingaba nenani eliyindinganiso. INkantolo ingase inikeze isiqinisekiso se-certiorari uma izinkantolo eziphansi zifinyelele izinqumo eziphikisanayo kulendaba, noma uma inencazelo enkulu yesizwe.

INkantolo Ephakeme ngezinye izikhathi inikeza imvume ye-certiorari ukuba ixazulule u-"i-corcuit," lapho izinkantolo zecala zikahulumeni ezisezifundazweni zokwahlulela ezimbili noma ngaphezulu zibusa ngendlela ehlukile ezimweni ezifanayo. Lezi zivame ukubizwa ngokuthi "izindaba ezihlukanisayo" lomsebenzi uqinisekisa ukuvumelana komthetho kahulumeni ezweni lonke, uvimbela isimo esididayo lapho umthetho ofanayo kahulumeni usho izinto ezihlukene ezingxenyeni zesizwe.

INkantolo icabangela futhi ukuthi icala lihilela imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho-sisekelo, ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni utholakele ungekho emthethweni, noma ukuthi leli cala linikeza ithuba lokucacisa inqubo ekhona. Amacala ahilela amalungelo ayisisekelo, ukwahlukana kwemibuso, noma ukubuswa kwezwe ngokuvamile adonsa ukunakekela kweNkantolo.

Ichibi Lekert Nenqubo Yokubukeza Kokuqala

Uma kucatshangelwa umthamo omkhulu wezicelo ezamukelwa yiNkantolo, amajaji aye asungula izimiso eziphumelelayo zokuzihlola. Iningi lamaJaji lihlanganyela equleni "eliyichibi," lisho omabhalane bawo bebonke bahlela phakathi kwabo izicelo ezihlukahlukene ze-certiorari futhi balungiselele imemori yamaJaji afushanisa izindaba futhi batusa ukuthi iNkantolo kufanele inikeze i-certiorari noma cha.

IJaji ngalinye livunyelwe ukuba libe nomabhalane bomthetho abathathu kuya kwabane enkantolo. Laba abantu abasanda kuphothula esikoleni somthetho, ngokuvamile abaphezulu ezikoleni eziphambili zekilasi labo. Ngokuvamile, baye bakhonza unyaka noma ngaphezulu njengomabhalane womthetho wejaji likahulumeni. Phakathi kwezinye izinto, benza ukucwaninga okungokomthetho okusiza amaJaji ekunqumeni ukuthi imaphi amacala okumelwe awamukele, basize ekulungiseleleni imibuzo uMahluleli angase ayibuze phakathi nezingxoxo zomlomo, futhi basize ekulungiseni ukuhlelwa kwemibono.

Nakuba ubulungisa ngabunye bunokuhlakanipha kokubukeza izicelo zolwembu, bonke babukezwa kuqala omabhalane bomthetho. Lesi isigaba lapho kuhlungwa khona amaphesenti angaphezu kwangu- 97 okunxusa, kungasoze kucatshangelwa ngokwabo. Abanye, omabhalane bafingqa icala ngalinye futhi batusa ukuthi iNkantolo ingalibukeza yini. Lemisebenzi idluliswa kubahluleli abahlanganyela e-"starch," kuyilapho omabhalane boMahluleli uSamuel Alito noNeil Gor bebukeza izicelo zabo siqu futhi betusa ngokuqondile.

Umthetho Wezine: Indlela Abakhethwa Ngayo Amacala

Enye yezimiso ezibaluleke kakhulu ezilawula inkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yaziwa ngokuthi i-"Rule of Four". Isilinganiso esingaphansi kwezine zamajaji kulindeleke ukuba zinikeze i-certiorari, ebizwa ngokuthi "umthetho wesine" inkantolo iphika izicelo eziningi futhi kanjalo ishiya isinqumo senkantolo ephansi ukuba sime ngaphandle kokubukezwa; ithatha amacala angaba ngu-80 kuya ku-1050.

Kulezozicelo ezingu-7000 ezingu-8 000 ezigcinwe isigaba ngasinye, iNkantolo inikeza i-certoriri futhi izwa impikiswano edluliselwe ngomlomo cishe ngo-80. Okwamanje, izimpikiswano zeNkantolo Ephakeme zisayina izinqumo ezimalunga angu-60 ngonyaka. Lokho kwehla kusukela kuma- 160 ngawo-1980 futhi kuphansi kakhulu kunenani lamacala anqunywa eminyakeni engu-15 edlule. Lokhu kuncipha okuphawulekayo echwebeni leNkanto eyenzeka enkantolo kuye kwaba yindaba yenkulumo yezazi nengxoxo enkulu.

Umthetho ka-4 usebenza njengesivikelo, uqinisekisa ukuthi idlanzana lamajaji lingaletha izimpikiswano ezibalulekile phambi kweNkantolo egcwele ngisho noma iningi lingase lingabaze ekuqaleni. Lomthetho ukhuthaza ukucatshangelwa okuphelele kwemibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho futhi uvimbela iningi elivamile ukuba lingazilawuli ngokuphelele izinqumo zeNkantolo.

Kwenzekani Lapho I - Certiorari Inqatshelwa?

Uma iNkantolo iphika ukumelana kwe-certiorari, isinqumo senkantolo ephansi simiswa, futhi icala liyaphela. Lokhu kwenzeka emacaleni amaningi kakhulu. Ingxenye encane kuphela yalezizicelo ephumelelayo. Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuthi ukuphikwa kwe-certiorari akunasici sesibonelo futhi akufanele kuchazwe njengokugunyazwa kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme yenkantolo ephansi.

Isinqumo sokuphika i-certiorari asisho ukuthi inkantolo ephakeme ivumelana nesinqumo senkantolo ephansi; kunalokho, kumane kusho ukuthi abahluleli abangaphansi kwezine banquma ukuthi izimo zesinqumo senkantolo ephansi zigunyaza ukubukezwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme. Iziqondiso zeNkantolo ezinikeza noma eziphikayo zikhishwa njengezinkulumo ezilula zezenzo ezithathwe, ngaphandle kwezincazelo ezinikezwayo zokuphika.

Inqubo Efushane: Amampikiswano Abhalwe Ezindaweni Ezinemisebe

Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme isinikeza i-certiorari, icala lingena esigabeni esisha esigxile ezingxabanweni zomthetho ezicashiwe. Ngemva komhlangano, uhlu lokuhleleka luyanyatheliswa lumemezela amacala anikezwa i-certiet. Icala elinikwe isibeletho libekwa esikhumulweni se-crearet seNkantolo futhi linikwe inani ledokodo.

Uma amaJaji enquma ukwamukela icala, icala libekwa esikhumulweni. Ngokwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, umceli unesikhathi esithile sokubhala imfishane, hhayi ukudlula amakhasi angu-50, ukubeka icala lakhe elingokomthetho ngokuphathelene nendaba iNkantolo evumela ukubukezwa kwayo. Ngemva kokuba umceli wesicelo ebekwe esigcinwe emkhawulweni, omunye umbutho, owaziwa njengophendulayo, unikezwa isikhathi esithile sokubhala i-mfushane. Lokhu kufushane futhi akudluli ngamakhasi angu-50.

Ngokungafani nama-cert creen mifushane, agcizelela ukuthi kungani iNkantolo kufanele ilalele icala labo, lezi zici ezimfushane zikhona, futhi zigcizelela ukuthi kungani iNkantolo kufanele ithathe uma ivuma. Imali yalowo ophendulayo ingenzeki kafushane ngemva kwesikhathi esithile ngemva kokuba umcebisi ebhaliwe. Ngemva kokuba sekufakwe iziphazamiso zokuqala, bobabili bangabhala izimpendulo ezimfushane eziphendulayo empikiswaneni yolunye uhlangothi.

Indima Ye - Amicus Curiae Efingqiwe

Ngaphezu kwemininingwane emifushane ebekwe yizigigaba ngokwazo, iNkantolo Ephakeme ivame ukuthola incazelo emfushane ye-acicus − yesiLatin ye-"umngane wenkantolo". Lokhu kufushaniswa kunikezwa abantu ngabanye, izinhlangano, amaqembu okuphatha izigebengu, noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezingezona izingxenye eziqondiswe ecaleni kodwa ezinesithakazelo esinamandla emphumeleni walo. Izingalayezeli zeNkantolo zinganikeza iSikathi, ulwazi lwezobuchwepheshe, noma ukwaziswa okubanzi ngemiphumela yesinqumo.

Amacala amakhulu eNkantolo enkulu ngokuvamile adonsa iziphakamiso eziningi ze-amicus ezivela kubantu abanezikhundla ezihlukahlukene. Izinhlangano zamalungelo omphakathi, amaqembu ezamabhizinisi, ohulumeni bombuso, izazi zomthetho, kanye neminye imikhakha ethazekile yonke ifuna ukuthonya ukucabanga kweNkantolo. Nakuba abahluleli bengaboshelwanga ngezimpikiswano ezifingqiwe, lokhu kuzithoba kungaba nethonya, ikakhulukazi lapho zinikeza izimpikiswano eziqanjiwe noma ukwaziswa okuyimfihlo okungahlanganisiwe ezimpikiswani zamaqembu.

USolicitor General wase-U.S., omelela uhulumeni kahulumeni phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme, unezikhundla ezikhethekile kule nqubo. USolicitor General angafaka iziphakamiso ze-amicus ezimweni lapho uhulumeni engelona iqembu, futhi iNkantolo ivame ukumema uSolicitor General ukuba asho imibono kahulumeni emacaleni abalulekile.

Izimpikiswano Zemilonyeni: Inkantolo Iyasebenza

Impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo imelela esinye sezici ezibonakala kakhulu neziphawulekayo zomsebenzi weNkantolo Ephakeme. INkantolo iveza impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo emacaleni angaba ngu-70-80 unyaka ngamunye. Izimpikiswano ziyithuba lokuba amaJaji abuze imibuzo ngokuqondile ngabameli abamelela amacala ngokuqondile, futhi abameli bagcizelele izimpikiswano ezibhekwa njengebaluleke kakhulu. Izimpikiswano zihlelwa njalo ngoMsombuluko, ngoLwesibili nangoLwesithathu ekuseni kusukela ngoMsombuluko wokuqala ngo - October, futhi ziqhubeke kuze kube sekupheleni kuka-April.

Ngokuvamile, iNkantolo ibamba izimpikiswano ezimbili usuku ngalunye kusukela ngo-10:00 a.m. Umthetho 28 ubeka imininingwane yenqubo yokuphikisa ngomlomo, kuhlanganise nokwehluleka kwemizuzu engu-30. Uhlangothi ngalunye luthola imizuzu engu-30 ukuze lukhiphe icala, nakuba umceli angase agcine ingxenye yaleso sikhathi ukuze aphikise ngemva kokuba umphikisi exazululile.

Ukuziphendukela Kwezimpikiswano Zemisho

Inqubo yezimpikiswano zeNkantolo Ephakeme edluliselwa ngomlomo iye yashintsha ngokuphawulekayo emlandweni weNkantolo. Ngaphambi kuka-1849, izimpikiswano zomlomo phambi kweNkantolo zazingalawuleki. Ngokuvamile, izimpikiswano zaqhubeka izinsuku eziningi futhi zadonsa isixuku esikhulu. Nokho, phakathi nama-1800 icala leNkantolo lenza ukuba kube nzima ukuqulwa kwecala okuthatha isikhathi eside. Ngekhulu leshumi elineshumi elinesine, izimpikiswano zomlomo zazingathatha izinsuku ezimbili noma ezintathu. Ngo-1849 zazilinganiselwe ngamahora amabili ohlangothi ngalunye. Ngo-1971, phakathi noMahluleli Omkhulu uWarren E. Burger's 10, izimpikiswano zomlomo zancintiswane zehliswa zaba imizuzu engamashumi amathathu empilweni ngayinye esabelweni engxolweni eyandayo enkantolo eyayibhekene neNkakhulu.

Lokhu kuziphendukela kwemvelo kubonisa ushintsho lwendlela yomsebenzi weNkantolo kanye nobunkimbinkimbi obukhulayo bedokodo layo. Nakuba abasekeli abadumile njengoDaniel Webster bake babamba izilaleli amahora amaningi, izimpikiswano zomlomo zanamuhla zilawulwa ngokuqinile, zigcwele ukudazululwa kwemibuzo enzima kakhulu engokomthetho enikezwa icala.

Okwenzeka Phakathi Nempikiswano Yemisho

Impikiswano ebanzi kufanele igcizelele futhi icacise izimpikiswano ezibhaliwe kulokhu okulungile. Iseluleko kufanele sithathe ngokuthi bonke amaJaji bafunde iziphakamiso ngaphambi kwempikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo. Kunokuba bamane baphinda lokho okushiwoyo emifushaneni yabo, abameli kumelwe bakulungele ukuhlanganyela engxoxweni eshukumisayo nabahluleli.

Impikiswano ewumlomo eNkantolo Ephakeme iyisigaba esibucayi senqubo yokwahlulela lapho amajaji ehlanganyela khona ngokuqondile nabameli ukuze bacacise futhi baphikisane ngenzuzo yecala. Isimiso ngasinye siqala ngokuthululwa okungokomthetho umabhalane, kulandelwe ukwahlulela okukhulu okubiza icala, futhi abameleli banikeze izimpikiswano zabo. Abameli kumelwe baphendule ngokuphumelelayo imibuzo ebhekiswe kumajaji, bahlanganise ukusabela kwabo empikiswaneni yabo yonke ngaphandle kokuthembela kakhulu ezintweni ezibhaliwe.

Abahluleli bavame ukuphazamisa abameli ngemibuzo, ngezinye izikhathi ngaphambi kokuba ummeli akhulume imisho eminingi ifeza izinjongo eziningi: basiza amajaji ukuba acacise amaphuzu adidayo, bahlole amandla empikiswano engokomthetho, bahlole izimo ezicatshangelwayo, futhi banikeze izikhalo kozakwabo. Ummeli weNkantolo Ephakeme ophumelelayo kumelwe acabange ngokushesha, aphendule imibuzo ngokuqondile, futhi aphendule ngokungenamdlandlale lapho bedingida impikiswano yabo.

Imingcele yesikhathi igcinwa ngokusemthethweni. Ukukhanya okumhlophe kwe-lectern yeseluleko kubonisa ukuthi kusele imizuzu emihlanu, futhi izimpawu ezibomvu ze-laiti ziphelile. Izimpikiswano zomlomo azisakazwanga; ngakho - ke, okuwukuphela kwendlela yokuzizwa ukuba khona ezinhlanganweni zeNkantolo. Nokho, iNkantolo ikhipha imidwebo yosuku olufanayo nemibhalo eqoshiwe yempikiswano, eyenza ukuba itholakale kumphakathi nasemithonjeni yezindaba.

Ukubaluleka Kwezinkulumo Ezishiwo Ngemisho

Nakuba abanye ababheki bengabaza ukuthi izimpikiswano zomlomo zithonya ngempela, odokotela abaningi beNkantolo Ephakeme bakholelwa ukuthi zibalulekile. Izimpikiswano ezingomlomo zinikeza ithuba lokuhlola ubuthakathaka ezimpikiswaneni ezilotshiwe, zicabangele imiphumela esebenzayo yemithetho engenzeka, futhi zihlole ukucabanga kwabanye abantu ngemibuzo ebuzwayo. Ezimweni eziseduze, indlela ummeli akhuluma ngayo ingawenza umehluko phakathi kokunqoba nokunqotshwa.

Impikiswano ephikwayo ifeza umsebenzi obalulekile womphakathi. Inikeza ukucaca nokufinyelela, ivumela izakhamuzi, izintatheli, nezazi ukuba ziqaphele inqubo yenkululeko yeNkantolo. Imibuzo ebuzwayo yamajaji ivame ukwembula ukukhathazeka kwayo nokuthambekela kwayo okungase kwenzeke, inikeza izikhombo ezisheshayo ukuthi icala lingase linqunywe kanjani.

Ingqungquthela: Isinqumo Sangasese

Ngemva kokuphetha, ukwenza izinqumo kwangempela kuqala ngemva kweminyango evalekile. Ngokwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, kuphela amaJaji avunyelwe egumbini leNgqungquthela ngalesi sikhathi (“amaphoyisa, omabhalane, omabhalane bomthetho, njll.). IJaji Elikhulu libiza isimiso ukuba sihlele futhi, njengophawu lweziqu zenhlangano, zonke izahlulelo zixhawula izandla. Uhlelo lokuqala lwebhizinisi, ngokuvamile, luzoxoxa ngezicelo zesonto ze-cretiariri, okungukuthi, ukunquma ukuthi yiziphi izindaba okumelwe zamukele noma zenqatshwe. Ngemva kwezicelo ze-certori zixoxwa, iJaji liqala ukuxoxa ngezocala lamacala azwakalayo kusukela ekugcineni kwayo.

UMahluleli ngamunye uyoba nesikhathi sokuchaza ukuma kwabo ecaleni emazwini angaphazanyiswa. UMahluleli Oyinhloko unikeza inkulumo yokuqala, futhi amaJaji ahlangene akhuluma ngokulandelana kobudala. Lendlela ehlelwe kahle iqinisekisa ukuthi bonke ubulungisa banethuba lokuveza imibono yabo ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa, futhi isimiso saphezulu sivimbela abahluleli abaphansi kakhulu ukuba bathonywe ngokungafanele ozakwabo abadala ngaphambi kokuba bahlobise izikhundla zabo siqu.

Izingxoxo zengqungquthela ziphakathi kwezimfihlo eziqashelwe kakhulu kuhulumeni waseMelika. Azikho izinto eziqoshiwe eziqoshiwe, akugcinwanga mizuzu, futhi abahluleli ngokwabo abavamile ukuxoxa ngalokho okwenzekayo engqungqutheleni.

Inqubo Yokuthutha Imikhumbi

Uma izinkulumo seziphelile, uMahluleli oMkhulu uvota kuqala, futhi amaJaji ahlangene nawo avote ngokuhlela ukuba kuhambe phambili. Amavoti ayabalwa, bese kukhethwa uMahluleli ukuba abhale umbono weNkantolo. Uma uMahluleli oyinhloko esemphakathini, ngokuvamile ayokhetha loMahluleli. Uma iJaji Elikhulu liphakathi kwabambalwa, uma iJaji elikhulu lithatha isabelo.

Isabelo semithwalo yemfanelo yokubhala imibono siyisinqumo esinemiphumela emikhulu. Ukwahlulela okunobulungisa kudinga ukucabangela umsebenzi womsebenzi womuntu ngamunye asebenza naye, ubuchwepheshe endaweni ehlobene nomthetho, ikhono lokuhlanganisa izinhlangano eziningi, kanye nendlela yokubhala. Ezimweni eziphawuliwe, uMahluleli oyinhloko uvame ukunikeza umbono kubo noma kubulungisa abacabangayo ngokunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba basekele abantu abaningi.

Ukubhala Umbono Nokugqugquzela

Ngemva kwevoti yengqungquthela, isahlulelo esabelwe ukubhala umbono wabaningi siqala umsebenzi onzima wokusungula incwadi engokomthetho ezochaza incazelo yeNkantolo futhi imise inqubo ebophayo. Lenqubo ithatha izinyanga eziningana futhi ihilela ukucwaninga okukhulu, ukubhala, nokubukeza.

Umlobi wemibono usebenza eduze nonobhala womthetho wabo ukuze acwaninge izenzakalo ezihlobene, ahlaziye izindaba zomthetho, futhi abhale umbono. Uma umshini usuqediwe, udluliselwa kwezinye izihluleli ukuze zibukeze futhi ziphendule. Le nqubo yokusakazwa kwezincwadi isikisela izinguquko, ukuphakamisa izinkathazo, noma ukubonisa ukuthi abanakuhlanganyela ezingxenyeni ezithile zombono.

Kwezinye izimo, umlobi wemibono kumelwe alungise izinto ezinkulu ukuze alondoloze iningi. Ijaji lokuqala elavota iningi lingase lisongele ukuthatha uhlangothi oluhlukile noma libhale ngokwahlukana uma ulimi oluthile lungashintshiwe. Le nqubo yokuxoxisana ingaba bucayi, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezihlukene kakhulu lapho ukuvota okukodwa kunquma umphumela.

Imibono Ephicanayo Nengavumelani

Akuwona wonke amajaji avumelana nomphumela wecala avumelana nokucabanga kweningi. Ubulungisa bungabhala umbono ovumelanayo ukuze buzwane nomphumela kodwa bunikeze ukuzwana okuhlukile okungokomthetho. Izimo zingaba nethonya, ikakhulukazi uma bechaza incazelo elinganiselwe engagunyaza ukusekelwa okukhulu ezimweni ezizayo.

Imibono engavumelani, ebhalwe abahluleli abangavumelani nesinqumo seningi, ifeza imisebenzi eminingi ebalulekile. Banikeza okunye ukuhlaziya okungokomthetho, baqokomisa amaphutha acatshangelwayo ekucabangeni kweningi, futhi ngezinye izikhathi babeka isisekelo sezinguquko zesikhathi esizayo kumthetho. Eminye yemibono edumile kakhulu emlandweni weNkantolo Ephakeme iphikisana neyathethelelwa kamuva lapho iNkantolo ilawula izinqumo zayo zangaphambili.

UMahluleli uRuth Bader Ginsburg wasebenzisa izimpikiswano ezidumile ukuze akhulume nezizukulwane ezizayo, ekholelwa ukuthi ukuphikisana nemibono kungashukumisela ekuthatheni umthetho noma ekugcineni kuqashelwe ukwahlulela.

Izinhlobo Zezinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme

Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha isinqumo sayo sokuphetha, ingathatha izinqubo eziningana. Inkantolo ingase iguquke, isho ukuthi isinqumo senkantolo ephansi sasingalungile futhi isinqumo seNkantolo kufanele sifezwe. Kungase kuqinisekiswe ukuthi isinqumo senkantolo ephansi sasilungile futhi kufanele sihlale sisebenza. Noma singase sishiyeke futhi sibuye sibuye silungiswe, kusho ukuthi isinqumo senkantolo ephansi sasingalungile futhi asisasebenzi, futhi inkantolo ephansi kufanele iphinde ihlole icala elisekelwe eziyalweni zeNkantolo.

Ngaphezu kwalezizimo ezivamile, iNkantolo ngezinye izikhathi iyashintsha izimpikiswano zokufushaniswa. Ukuhlikihlwa kwesinqumo sesinqumo samajaji ayisithupha noma ngaphezulu kwenzeka lapho amajaji ayisithupha noma ngaphezulu egumbuqela isinqumo senkantolo ephansi ngaphandle kokufushaniswa ngokuphelele noma impikiswano, njengalapho inkantolo ephansi ihlulekile ukusebenzisa isibonelo esifanele. Lelithuluzi lokugcina alivamile kakhulu ukusetshenziswa izikhathi eziphindwe ka-10 ngonyaka odlule amashumi ambalwa eminyaka.

Imibono Yobuhlanya Nezinqumo Ezihlukile

Ngezinye izikhathi iNkantolo ayinakho ukuqoqa iningi ukuze isekele isinqumo esisodwa. Kulamacala, iNkantolo iveza umbono othakazelayo − okuyisinqumo esimemezela isahlulelo seNkantolo kodwa esingahambisani neningi lamajaji. Imibono engokokuziphatha inenani elilinganiselwe ngoba ayimeleli umbono weningi leNkantolo.

Izinqumo ezihlukene, lapho amajaji amaningi ebhala ngokwehlukana futhi kungekho noyedwa okho umbono oyala iningi, zingadala ukudideka ezinkantolo eziphansi ezizama ukusebenzisa isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme. Ezimweni ezinjalo, izinkantolo eziphansi zilandela isisekelo esincane kakhulu esisekela isahlulelo, ngokuphikiswa ngombono ophiconekayo onikeza amavoti esihlanu ngenxa yomphumela.

Umphumela Oyinhloko Wezinqumo ZeNkantolo Ephakeme

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme zimisa isibonelo esisisekelo sokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi nezinkantolo zikahulumeni kumelwe zilandele lapho zichaza umthetho kahulumeni noMthetho-sisekelo. Lesi simiso, esaziwa ngokuthi i-ssue decisis (i-Latin ye "ukuma ngezinto ezinqunywe"), sithuthukisa ukungaguquguquki, ukubikezela nokuzinza kwesimiso somthetho.

Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayiboshelwa ngokuphelele yizimo zayo siqu. INkantolo ingazilawula izinqumo zayo zangaphambili lapho iphetha ngokuthi zazinqunywe ngokungalungile noma zazingasebenzi. Lamandla asetshenziswa kancane, njengoba ukushintsha njalo kungalulaza ukuqiniseka komphakathi ekuzinzeni komthetho. Uma iNkantolo ilawula inqubo yokubusa, inikeza izaba zokuhlehla kakhulu ekubukeni idesis.

Ithonya lezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme lidlulela ngalé kwenkantolo. Isinqumo esikhulu singashintsha isimiso sezenhlalo, sishintshe ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha kahulumeni, amalungelo angcono, futhi sithonye izimpikiswano zezombangazwe. Icala elihilela ukukhishwa kwezisu, ukuvuma, ukuthatha isinyathelo, amalungelo emali, izibhamu, nenkululeko engokwenkolo liye labangela ukudingida ukushintshwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ukuze kuthathe izincazelo zeNkantolo.

Izinhlelo ezikhethekile kanye nezisebenziso eziphuthumayo

Nakuba amacala amaningi elandela indlela ejwayelekile esuka ekuceleni isicelo ngempikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo ukuya enqumweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme inezinqubo zokusingatha izindaba eziphuthumayo ezingenakulinda inqubo evamile. Icala 'le-Court' lisebenzisa igama elithi "isithunzi"""" (a) ukuchaza iziyalezo nezinqumo ezikhishwa ngaphandle kokufushaniswa okuphelele nempikiswano yomlomo.)

Izicelo eziphuthumayo zihilela izicelo zokuhlala (izivikelo eziphansi) lapho kudluliswa izikhalo. Lezi zizicelo zingafuna ukumisa ukubulala, zivimbele ukumiswa komthetho omusha, noma zilondoloze isimo esikhona ngesikhathi iphikiswana. Inkantolo ingazinikeza noma iphike lezizicelo ngencazelo encinci, ngezinye izikhathi ngevoti eliphelele.

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izibuko lemvuthuluka zivumela iNkantolo ukuba yenze izinqumo ezibalulekile ngaphandle kobufakazi obubonisa inzuzo evamile. Abalweli baphikisa ngokuthi izinqubo eziphuthumayo zidingekile ukuze kuxazululwe izindaba ezizwelayo ezisheshayo futhi kuvinjelwe ukulimala okungalungiseki kuyilapho amacala eqhubeka ngenqubo evamile yokuhlola.

Indima Yezinhlangano Namasiko

Ngaphandle kwemithetho ehleliwe nezinqubo, iNkantolo Ephakeme isebenza ngokwezimiso eziningi ezingabhaliwe namasiko alawula inqubo yayo yokwenza isinqumo. Isiko lokuxhawulana ngaphambi kwemihlangano, isimiso sokukhuluma nokuvota, umkhuba wokubizana ngokuthi "Ubulungisa" kunokuba kuthiwe amagama okuqala, la masiko aqinisa ukubambisana nokuhloniphana phakathi kwabahluleli abangase bangavumelani kakhulu ngemibuzo engokomthetho.

Umkhuba wokufihla imfihlo ezixoxisana nezingxoxo zemihlangano kanye nokuhlela imibono uvikela inqubo yokuzinqumela futhi uvumela amajaji ukuba ashintshe izingqondo zawo ngaphandle kokuhlazeka umphakathi. Isiko lokukhipha izinqumo ngezinsuku zombono, lapho amajaji ethatha ibhentshi futhi umlobi efunda ukufushaniswa kwesinqumo, kwenezela umkhosi namandla ekumemezeleni izimemezelo ezinkulu.

Le mikhuba yokuhlela iye yaqala phakathi namakhulu amabili eminyaka futhi ibonisa ukuqonda kweNkantolo indima yayo esimisweni somthetho-sisekelo. Ikhuthaza ukuqashelwa ngokucophelela, ikhuthaza ukuyekethisa, futhi igcine iNkantolo isemthethweni njengenhlangano engaphezulu kwezombangazwe ezivukelayo.

Ukutholakala Ngokubona Kahle Nokungena Komphakathi

Nakuba iqhinga leNkantolo Ephakeme lihlala liyimfihlo, isikhungo siye sathatha izinyathelo zokwandisa ukufinyelela komphakathi emsebenzini waso. Iwebhusayithi yeNkantolo inikeza imvume yemibono, izikhangiso eziphikwayo neziqoshiwe zomlomo, izimfihlo, nehhotela leNkantolo. Ukukhululwa komlomo wemishwana kuvumela umphakathi nemithombo yezindaba ukuba zilandele amacala ngesikhathi sangempela.

Nokho, iNkantolo ihlala iqaphile kakhulu kunezinhlangano eziningi zikahulumeni. Ngokungafani neSishaya-mthetho, ayisasakazi izenzakalo zayo. Ngokungafani negatsha eliphethe, aliqhubeli izingqungquthela noma imithombo yezindaba ikhiphe izikhangiso zokuchaza izinqumo zayo. Amajaji ngokwawo awavamile ukuxoxa ngamacala angaphambili noma ngezinqumo zamuva.

Lokhu kubonakala okulinganiselwe kubonisa umbono weNkantolo ngendima yayo yokubusa. Amajaji akholelwa ukuthi imibono yawo kufanele izikhulumele nokuthi ukukhulumela okukhulu komphakathi kungalulaza umbono weNkantolo njengenkantolo engenalubandlululo esebenzisa umthetho kunokuba yenze umthetho. Noma kunjalo, izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka ukuthi iNkantolo ifanele ivume ukuthi ikhululekile yini, kuhlanganise nokuvumela amakhamera enkantolo noma ukunikeza izincazelo eziningi ngokwengeziwe zezinqumo zayo zokukhetha.

Ukugxekwa Nokuhlongozwa Kwezinguquko

Inqubo yokwenza kwesinqumo kweNkantolo Ephakeme iye yabhekana nokugxekwa okuhlukahlukene eminyakeni edlule. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo ithatha amacala ambalwa kakhulu, ishiya imibuzo ebalulekile ingekho futhi ivumela ukuhlukana kwesifunda kuqhubeke. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi isimiso se-createter sinikeza amandla amakhulu kakhulu kubabhali bezomthetho ekunqumeni ukuthi imaphi amacala amajaji abonakala. Abanye bagxeka ukuntuleka kokukhanya esimweni esiphuthumayo seNkantolo nokungabikho kwamakhamera enkantolo.

Izinguquko ezihlongozwayo ziye zahlanganisa imingcele yezikhathi ezithile ekwahluleleni, ukwandisa inani lezihlalo eNkantolo, ifuna ukuba iNkantolo ilalele izigaba ezithile zamacala, futhi isebenzise uhlelo lwezimiso eziqondiswe ngokukhethekile kumajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme. Isiphakamiso ngasinye siphakamisa imibuzo enzima ngendima efanele yejaji esimisweni sentando yeningi nokulingana phakathi kokuzimela kokwahlulela nokulandisa.

Impikiswano ngoshintsho lweNkantolo Ephakeme ibonisa ukungezwani okukhulu kwesimiso somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Amandla eNkantolo okuqeda izenzo ezithathwa amagatsha kahulumeni akhethiwe ngokuyisisekelo amelene nemithetho engokomthetho, kodwa lomandla abalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo nasekulondolozeni ukubusa komthetho. Ukuthola ukulinganisela okulungile phakathi kwegunya lokwahlulela nokuziphendulela ngokwentando yeningi kuhlala kuyinselele eqhubekayo.

Isici Somuntu Enkantolo Ephakeme Esenza Isinqumo

Nakuba izinqubo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zisemthethweni futhi imibono yayo ibhalwe ngolimi lobuchwepheshe, inqubo yokwenza izinqumo ekugcineni ihilela abantu abanezizinda ezingafani, amafilosofi, nemibono ehlukene. Izenzakalo zokuphila komahluleli, amafilosofi okwahlulela, kanye nezindinganiso zithonya ngokungenakugwenywa indlela abachaza ngayo uMthetho-sisekelo nemithetho kahulumeni.

Abanye abahluleli bamukela ubuKhosi bokuqala, befuna ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala yomphakathi ngesikhathi sokudilizwa. Abanye bathatha indlela ephilayo yokuthatha umthetho-sisekelo, babheka uMthetho-sisekelo njengencwadi enamandla okumelwe ichazwe ngokucabangela izindinganiso zesikhathi kanye nezimo. Lamafilosofi aphikisanayo aholela eziphethweni ezihlukene ngemibuzo eyisisekelo yomthetho-sisekelo.

Ubuhlobo phakathi kobulungisa bungase buthandeke kakhulu uma behloniphana futhi bethembana futhi befuna ukuvumelana.

Ukubheka phambili: Indima Evelele yeNkantolo Ephakeme

Njengoba umphakathi waseMelika uqhubeka uguquka, iNkantolo Ephakeme ibhekene nezinselele ezintsha nemibuzo abaFramers ababengeke bayilindele. Izinkinga ezihilela ukuba wedwa kwamanani, ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, kanye nesayensi yebhayoloji zifuna ukuba iNkantolo isebenzise izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezisenamakhulu eminyaka zikhona ekugawuleni ubuchwepheshe obusezimweni ezintsha.

Ukufaneleka kweNkantolo kuxhomeke ekuthembekeni komphakathi ukuthi inquma amacala asekelwe emthethweni kunakwezombangazwe. Enkathini yokuhlukaniswa okukhulu kwezinhlanga, ukulondoloza lokhu kuqiniseka kuye kwaba nzima kakhulu. INkantolo kumelwe isebenzise phakathi kokungabekeli amagatsha ezombangazwe kakhulu futhi ishisekele kakhulu ukumisa imithetho yayo.

Ukuqonda indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme enquma ngayo amacala amakhulu kubalulekile ukuze umuntu abe umfokazi onolwazi. Izinqumo zeNkantolo zithinta zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika, kusukela emalungelweni esiwajabulelayo kuya ekwakhekeni kukahulumeni wethu. Ngokuguqula izinqubo nezinqubo zeNkantolo, singawaqonda kangcono amandla nokulinganiselwa kokwenza izinqumo zomthetho wentando yeningi.

Isiphetho

Inqubo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yokunquma amacala amakhulu yinqubo eyinkimbinkimbi, eneziteji eziningi eklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukucatshangelwa nokumiswa kwezimiso. Kusuka ekuceleni kokuqala kwe-certiori ngezimpikiswano zomlomo, ukuxoxa ngengqungquthela, nokubhala umbono, isinyathelo ngasinye sifeza imisebenzi ebalulekile endima engokomthetho weNkantolo.

Nakuba lenqubo iye yaqala ngokuhamba kwesikhathi futhi iyaqhubeka ibhekene nokugxekwa futhi ifuna inguquko, ibonisa izindinganiso eziyisisekelo zesimiso somthetho waseMelika: ukubaluleka kwesibonelo, isidingo sokuhlaziya ngokucophelela imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi yomthetho, kanye nesibopho sokuchaza izinqumo zokwahlulela. Umsebenzi weNkantolo Ephakeme uhlela incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo kanye nokusungulwa komthetho kahulumeni, ukwenza inqubo yawo yokwenza izinqumo ibe indaba ebaluleke kakhulu kuwo wonke amaMelika.

Kulabo abanesithakazelo sokufunda okwengeziwe ngeNkantolo Ephakeme nomsebenzi wayo, [[FLT:] inikeza ingosi yeNkantolo ePhakeme nezinqumo. inikeza imibono, izingxoxo zomlomo, nezinye imithombo. SCOUSBLlog[[ inikeza imininingwane eningiliziwe nokuhlaziywa kwezindaba zeNkantolo nesinqumo. Izinhlangano ezifana ne- Brenan Center yeJaji neNkantolo yeNkantolo engokomthetho enikeza umbono owengeziwe enkantolo yezenzweni eMelika. Ukuqonda izikhulu zezindaba zeNkakhulu zeNkathi. [FLT]