Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Senqubo Efanele

Isimiso senqubo efanele sifakwe kakhulu emthethweni-sisekelo waseMelika. IsiHlanziso sesihlanu, esagunyazwa ngo-1791 njengengxenye yeBill of Rights, simemezela ukuthi akekho umuntu ozothi "athathelwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." ISiphendu seMibuliso seshumi nane, esamukelwa ngo-1868, sandisa lesi sivikelo esifanayo kohulumeni bezwe, siqinisekisa ukuthi akukho zwe elingabangela "noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho"" lezi zibophakamiso eziqinile eziqinile zokulunga kwempahla.

Inqubo efanelekile ayiyona inqubo emisiwe yemithetho kodwa indinganiso eguquguqukayo edinga ukulunga okuyisisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme ihlukanise ngokomlando phakathi kwezimo ezimbili: iprodurational nqubo efanele, ethinta izinyathelo zikahulumeni okumelwe azithathe ngaphambi kokuncisha othile impahla, futhi inqubo efanelekile yokuzibeka phansi [, elinganisela okuqukethwe noma izihloko zemithetho ephula amalungelo empahla. Emmongweni wempahla, inqubo yokuquleka okufanele, ifuna ukuhlolwa, isaziso, ukuzwa, nomenzi wesinqumo, nongakhethi.

IJaji uFelix Frankfurder wake wathi "inqubo yomthetho esele ayiyona nje inkulumo esho okungafani."Iwumqondo wokuthi "ubonisa isimo esijulile sokulunga phakathi komuntu nomuntu, phakathi kukahulumeni naphakathi kwababuswayo." Lomqondo wesisekelo uqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke ube umahluleli, umsizi, noma umbulali uma uthatha impahla yomuntu.

Izinhlobo Zempahla Kahulumeni Egawulwayo

Umbuso kahulumeni wokuthatha impahla uwela ngokuyinhloko ezigabani ezintathu: indawo ephezulu, ilahleko yempahla[, kanye ukuthatheka kwemali . Inye isebenza ngaphansi kwezakhiwo ezihlukene zomthetho kodwa yonke ingaphansi kwenqubo elinganiselwe.

Ukuqamba okuphambili nokusetshenziswa obala

IsiHlanziso sesihlanu ngokwaso sihlanganisa i-Pieting Claus: "Impahla yomuntu siqu ngeke ithathwe ukuze isetshenziswe umphakathi, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo." Uhulumeni angathatha indawo ngenjongo yomphakathi − njengemigwaqo, izikole, noma amapaki − ikhokhe imali efanelekile. Isihluthulelo senqubo edingekayo sigxile ekutheni ukuthatheka kusebenza kwasobala yini [ futhi ukuthi umniniyo uthola isaziso esifanelekile nethuba lokuncintisana nenani lemali.

Icala eliphawulayo Kelo v. iDolobha laseNew London (2005]) landisa ngokuphawulekayo incazelo yokusetshenziswa komphakathi. INkantolo Ephakeme yabamba 5-4 ukuthi intuthuko yezomnotho ifanelekela ukusetshenziswa umphakathi, ivumela idolobha ukuba lithathe amakhaya abantu ukuze lithathe umsebenzi wezentengiselwano. UMahluleli John Paul Stevens wabhalela iningi ukuthi "isinqumo sedolobha ukuthi indawo icindezeleke ngokwaneleyo ukuba ilungiselelo lentuthuko libalelwe ukugcinwa." Isinqumo samazwe asebenzela emuva futhi saholela ekudluliseni imithetho eminingi ukuba ivimbeleni indawo ephezulu yezentengiselwano engcono ngokwenzuzo yangasese. I-Connecticut ngokwayo yavala ukuqeqeshwa ngo-2017.

Ngokuphambene, Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CatV Corp. (1982) yakhuluma ngokusetshenziswa kwendawo okunganqamuki. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ngisho nebhokisi elincane lentambo elifakwe esakhiweni lahlanganisa ukudinga ukukhokhelwa, ukuqinisekisa isimiso sokuthi noma ikuphi ukuhlasela okunganqamuki kuphula kokubili ukuthatha u-Celas nenqubo efanele.

Ukuvinjelwa Kwezakhamuzi

Ukulahlekelwa okungokwangaphakathi kuvumela uhulumeni ukuba abambe impahla esolwayo ngokuhileleka emsebenzini wobugebengu, cishe ngaphandle kokumangalela umniniyo ngobugebengu. Indinganiso engokomthetho iyimbangela exazululekayo [ engenakuxazululwa ukuthi impahla ihlangene nokuziphatha okungekho emthethweni, umthwalo ophansi kakhulu kune ungenakho ukungabaza okunengqondo [[[[ indinga inqubo engokomthetho yobugebengu. Abagxeki baphikisa lesimiso sokwephula inqubo efanele ngenxa yokuthi impahla ingathathwa ngokusolwayo yodwa, futhi abanikazi bendlu ivame ukubhekana nenqubo ebizayo ukuze ibuyiselwe.

INkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngezimfuneko ezifanele zenqubo elahlwayo ku- United States v. James Daniel Good Real Imagement (1993). INkantolo yathi uhulumeni akakwazanga ukuthatha impahla yangempela ngokulahlekelwa yisizwe ngaphandle kokunikeza umnikazi isaziso ngaphambili nethuba lokuqulwa. IJaji uAnthony Kennedy labhala ukuthi "ilungelo lokuqaphela ngaphambi kokuba kuqalwe futhi ukuqulwa kusemthethweni womthetho wenqubo efanele." Isinqumo sanciphisa lomkhuba kodwa asiwuqedanga; ukulahlekelwa kuhlala kuyithuluzi elinamandla lokugcinwa kwemithetho nomthetho.

Muva nje, Caperton v. A.T. Massay Coal. (2009), nakuba kungelona icala lokuthatheka, kugcizelela ukuthi inqubo efanele ifuna amajaji ukuba angakhethi − isimiso esinwebeka ekulahlekelweni kwemithetho lapho uhulumeni ekhona futhi ezuza khona impahla.

Ukukhokhiswa Intela Namanga

I-IRS ingathatha indawo ukuze yanelise izintela ezingakhokhelwa ngaphansi kwegunya le-International Revenue Code. Nakuba ukuquleka kwentela kungaphansi kwenqubo efanele, iNkantolo Ephakeme sekuyisikhathi eside ikholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni angaqoqa izintela ngaphandle kwesaziso uma kudingeka ukuvimbela ukuphambuka. Nokho, umniniyo ngokuvamile uthola isaziso sangemva kwe-seziswele kanye nelungelo lokulalela. Icala [[FLT:] Filips v. umqondisi we-International Revolution [1931]) [1931] usekela intela efingqisiwe kuphela ngenxa yokuthi ukuzwa okulandelayo kukhona. I-IRS idinga ukunikezwa kwecala [[FLT] phambi kwezenzo eziningi.[FFOLT]

Imfuneko Yokuqaphela Neyokuzwa

Inqumbi enqubeni imfuneko efanelekile enikezwa isaziso esinganele[ ne eshoyo ukuzwa [ ngaphambi kokuncisha umuntu impahla. Inkantolo Ephakeme i-Mulrane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co. [19]) yasungula ukuthi isaziso kumelwe sibe "ngesizathu sokubala, ngaphansi kwazo zonke izimo, ukuveza izithakazelo zezenzo zesenzo futhi ibanike ithuba lokuveza ukuphikisa kwabo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi iphephandaba lingase likwazi ukuphuma uma umnini hulumeni esazi.

Ku Fuetes v. Shevin (1972], iNkantolo yawisa umthetho we-Florida ovumela amalungu ukuba athathe izinto zasekhaya ngaphandle kokuzwa. UMbumbi uStettp wabhala ukuthi "ilungelo lokuzwiwa alixhomekile ekuboniseni kusengaphambili ukuthi umuntu uyonqoba ngokufanele." Isinqumo sagcizelela ukuthi ngisho nempahla yesikhashana incishwanelwa ngaphandle kokuba kusekhona izimo ezihlukile.

Indinganiso yanamuhla yokulinganisela izithakazelo zikahulumeni ngokumelene namalungelo empahla ngayinye i-Mathews v. Eldidge ukuhlola [19976]. INkantolo yasho izici ezintathu:

  1. Isithakazelo somuntu siqu sathintwa isenzo esingokomthetho.
  2. Ingozi yokuncishwa izinto ngokungafanele ngezinqubo zamanje kanye nenani lokuvikelwa okwengeziwe.
  3. Isithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo yemali neyokuphathwa kwezinqubo ezengeziwe.

Lokhu kuhlola okulinganiselayo kusho ukuthi ukuquleka kwempahla akudingeki ukuba kube nenqubo efanayo. Ukulungisa indlu kudinga isivikelo esiphezulu kakhulu kunokuthatha imoto okucatshangwa ukuthi ishushumbisa izidakamizwa. Uhulumeni kumelwe uvumelanise izinqubo zayo nobukhulu bokuswela.

Ezihlukile Ekuqapheleni Nasekuzweni Kwangaphambili

Nakuba inqubo efanele ngokuvamile idinga ukuqashelwa kusengaphambili nokuqulwa kwecala, iziningi eziqashelwayo zivumela uhulumeni ukuba athathe indawo kuqala futhi kamuva alungiselele inqubo.

Izimo Ezibi

Uma kukhona usongo olusheshayo lokuthi impahla izobhujiswa, isuswe, noma isetshenziswe ukwenzela umsebenzi wobugebengu owengeziwe, amaphoyisa angayithatha ngaphandle kwemvume noma ngaphambi kokuzwa. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvinjelwa okuzobhujiswa kungathathwa ngokungenakulinganiswa. INkantolo e Carroll v. United States (1925) yaqala yaqaphela ukukhishwa kwemoto, ivumela ukuba izimoto zihlolwe ngaphandle kwesizathu uma kunesizathu esikhona, ngenxa yokuhamba kwazo. Lokhu kunwebela ekuthuthwini impahla eboshelwe ezimotweni.

Umbono Ongamanga

Uma isikhulu sikhona ngokomthetho futhi sibona ubufakazi noma singenaso iso elisobala, bangasithatha ngaphandle kogunyazo. Inkantolo Ephakeme [ku- Horton v. California (1990) yacacisa ukuthi isikhulu kumelwe sibe nokungena okusemthethweni entweni, umuntu ophethe kumelwe avele ngokushesha, futhi ukutholakala kumelwe kungabi nasiqinisekiso. Lemfundiso ayiyiqedi ngokuphelele inqubo efanele kodwa ivimbela ukuqulwa kwecala ekubukezeni kobuphindisa.

Okunamathiselwe ngaphambi kokwahlulela

Kwezinye izindaba zomphakathi, abakweletayo bangathola umyalo wenkantolo wokwaba impahla ngaphambi kokwahlulela uma onecala esengozini yokubaleka noma yokufihla impahla. Kwihuzaicut v. Doehr (1991) bakholelwa ukuthi imifakela enjalo idinga ukuqulwa uma izimo ezithile zikhona, kanjalo iqinise inqubo efanele yokuvikela kulendawo.

Umlando Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Umqondo wenqubo efanele ubhekisa emuva kuMagna Carta (1215), owaqinisekisa ukuthi “akekho umuntu okhululekile oyobanjwa noma aboshwe... ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kwabalingana naye noma ngomthetho wezwe. ” AmaMelika angenabuzwe ayekuqaphela kakhulu ukuquleka kwempahla okungokomthetho ngaphansi kokubusa kwaseBrithani, kuhlanganise nemvume ezivamile kanye nezimvume zosizo ezisetshenziselwa ukuphoqelela imithetho yezohwebo. ISiphendulo sesine nesesihlanu sasiyimpendulo eqondile kulezi zikhalo.

Phakathi nekhulu le-19, iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlela inqubo ehambelana nezindaba ezingokwendawo. I-Slaughter- House Cases (1873) ekuqaleni yavimbela ukusebenza kweSichibiyelo se 1473, kodwa kamuva izinqumo ezinjenge iChicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v Chicago [1897] yafaka ukuthatha u-Clausse ezindaweni, yandisa inqubo efanele yokuvikela impahla.

Ikhulu lama - 20 leminyaka laba nokwanda okuphawulekayo kwenqubo efanele yokuquleka kwempahla ngezandulela zeNkantolo yaseWarren neBurger Court, ukumisa isimiso sanamuhla sezaziso, ukuzwa, nokufushaniswa ngokungakhethi. Izikhulu zamuva ezithatha izinto ngokungaguquki ziye zazithuthukisa lezisivikelo, zizivikelisela ezithakazelweni zokugcinwa komthetho.

Inqubo Efanele Njengokulinganiselwa Kwamandla Kahulumeni

Inqubo elindelekile isebenza njengokuhlolwa kokwakhiwa kwegunya likahulumeni. Iphoqelela umbuso ukuba wehlise, unikeze ulwazi, futhi uthethelele izenzo zawo ngaphambi kokuthatha impahla unomphela. Lokhu kulinganisela kubonisa ukungathembani kwabasunguli bamandla agxilisiwe. UJames Madison wabhala kuFederalst No. 10 ukuthi ukuvikela amalungelo empahla kwakuyinjongo eyinhloko yoMthetho-sisekelo, futhi inqubo efanele iyinqubo eyisisekelo yaleyosivikelo.

Imfuneko yokuqulwa kwecala ngaphambi kokuphanjwa ibangela ukungavumelani okunamandla nezenzo ezibophayo. Njengoba iNkantolo yaphawula ku iQuements, "ilungelo lokuzwakala lingaba nenani elincane uma ukuzwa kungahlehliswa ngokungenasiphelo" ngokufuna uhulumeni ukuba athwale umthwalo wobufakazi ngaphambi kokuba athathe impahla, inqubo efanele iqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha ayancitshiswa.

Ukuhlola kwanamuhla kuye kwabonisa ukuthi izimfuneko eziqinile zenqubo yokulahlekelwa kwezakhamuzi − njengokudinga ukukhokhwa kwecala lobugebengu ngaphambi kokulahlekelwa kokugcina(/) kubheka ukuxhashazwa okuncane namazinga aphansi okukhungezwayo. Amanye amazwe aye amisa izinguquko ezibekwe ngokwezimiso ezifanele, njengokufuna uhulumeni ukuba afakazele ngobufakazi obucacile nobugculisayo bokuthi impahla iyalahleka, kunokuba nje kuthathwe imbangela.

Ngesikhathi esifanayo, inqubo efanele ayiphelele. Uhulumeni uyakwazi ukuthatha impahla lapho kuphuthuma, lapho kwenziwa imisebenzi yomphakathi, nalapho kuhlolwa ngezenzo zobugebengu. Ukulinganisela kuxhomeke ekutheni ukuphambana kunjani namalungelo ahilelekile.

Ukusabela Okungokomthetho Nemizamo Yenguquko

Umbango phakathi kokusebenza kahle kukahulumeni nenqubo efanelekile kuye kwaholela ezimpini eziqhubekayo zezishaya-mthetho. Ekusabeleni Kelo, izifundazwe 44 zidlulise imithetho evimbela indawo edumile ukuze kuthuthukiswe izomnotho. Lemithetho idinga ukuboniswa okukhulu kwesidingo somphakathi kanye nembuyiselo enkulu kumnini-khaya oshiyekile.

Kukulahlekelwa kwesizwe, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zashukumiseleka ukuba zifune ukukhokelwa kwecala ngaphambi kokuba impahla ilahlekelwe unomphela. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i - Ianco v. Brunetti[FLT]][209] iphethe indawo ehlukile /ukubhalisa i-octrandment (* kodwa isimiso sombono wokungathathi hlangothi kwimingcele kahulumeni. ISishaya-Mnyango sithinta futhi amalungelo empahla. Ngokuqondile kakhulu, i-Urcertrectiverreation Univation of dertivectivemental Compultive and Seizs (DUUVELECURCES) Act [FFF:], lapho kuboniswe khona ubufakazi obungu-Generaltioctive.

Kulelozinga lesifundazwe, i-National Conference of State Legislatures ilahla izinqubo zokuguqula . Kusukela ngo-2025, 14 amazwe adinga ukuqulwa kwecala ngaphambi kokulahlekelwa, kusukela kwezimbili kuphela ngo-2010. Lezinguquko zisekelwe ngokuqondile ezingxabanweni ezifanele: abanikazi bempahla akumelwe balahlekelwe yimpahla yabo ngaphandle kokungatshazwa ukuthi banecala elingenakungabaza.

Isiphetho: Ukuphakama Okuqhubekayo Kwenqubo Elindelekile

Inqubo elindelekile ilokhu iwumthetho-sisekelo oyinhloko ovimbela ukuhlasela kwempahla kahulumeni. Nakuba uhulumeni enezithakazelo ezifanelekile ekulweni nobugebengu, ukuqoqa inzuzo, nokusekela izakhiwo zomphakathi, ngeke ifinyelele le migomo ngokulahlekelwa ubulungisa obuyisisekelo. IziNguqulo zesihlanu neshumi nane ziqinisekisa ukuthi impahla ayithathwa kalula noma ngokuzumayo.

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha-shintsha − ukuvumela ukuquleka kwempahla ye-minustrual, ukulahlekelwa imfucumfucu yemininingwane, kanye nokufakwa kwempahla ye-operarn-drive okufakwa kuyo − izikhombi zizoqhubeka zisebenzisa uhlelo olufanele lwenqubo. Izimiso eziyinhloko zisele: isaziso, ukuzwa, ukungakhethi, nokulingana. Abanikazi bezindawo abaqonda lamalungelo bangazivikela kangcono kuhulumeni ongabacuphi.

Ukuze ifunde ngokuqhubekayo, iqoqo lenqubo yenqubo efanelekile yezomthetho linikeza ukuhlolwa okuningiliziwe kwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme. I-Cornell Legin Information Institute's efanelekile yenqubo ye-cinet[ inikeza isiqondiso esibanzi somthetho. Ekugcineni, uMnyango wekhasimende wezobulungisa ezindaweni eziphezulu[ unikeza umkhuba wamanje womthetho.