Isingeniso: Idwala Lenkululeko Nganye

Umqondo wenqubo efanele ungenye yezindlela zokuvikela ezihlala njalo nezibalulekile kakhulu ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni esiwubusayo kunoma yimuphi umphakathi wentando yeningi. Yisimiso somthetho esifuna ukuba umbuso uhloniphe wonke amalungelo angokomthetho abekwe kumuntu, uqinisekise ukuthi akekho umuntu ophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla engenazo izinqubo ezingakhethi nezingokomthetho. Kubafundisi, ochwepheshe bezomthetho, nofaka izakhamuzi, ukuqonda ukuthi inqubo efanelekile ibalulekile kangakanani ukuze kuqondwe ukulingana okubucayi kwamandla phakathi kombuso nomuntu. Ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, igunya likahulumeni liyanqandwa, futhi amalungelo abantu ngabanye angenawo amandla ezombangazwe noma ithonya lezenhlalo. Kungenxa yokuziphaka kwezekwayo. Kungenxa yalokho, abafundi, abafundi, ochwepheshe bezomthetho abasemthethweni abakwazi ukubhekana nezimiso zokubusa.

Isivikelo sokuvikela ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni ngokungena ngokomthetho sihlanganiswe eMthethweni we-United States ngeSichibiyelweni sesihlanu neseshumi nane, esiwenqabela ngokuqondile uhulumeni ukuba anciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Nokho incazelo kanye nokusetshenziswa kwala magama kuye kwaphikiswana, kwacwengisiswa, futhi kwanwetshwa phakathi namakhulu amaningi eminyaka encazelo engokomthetho. Lesihloko sinikeza ukuhlolwa okubanzi kwenqubo emisiwe, ukulandelela izimpande zakhe ezingokomlando, ukuchaza izinhlobo ezimbili eziyinhloko zazo, izakhiwo zazo ezimbili eziyinhloko, kanye nenqubo engaphansi kwenqubo yomthetho, kanye nendlela izinkantolo eziye zaqhubeka zisebenzisa ngayo lezi zimiso ezibonisa ukuma kwe-jurispriform. Futhi siveza izinselele zamanje, kuhlanganise nezicingosigungulo zezokuhlola, ukuvikela kwezengasese, nendima elawulayo, inqubo ebusayo ebusayo.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando Senqubo Efanele

UMagna Carta Nesiko Lomthetho Ovamile WaseNgilandi

Isiqalo senqubo efanele singalandelelwa emuva ngonyaka ka-1215, lapho izigebengu zamaNgisi ziphoqelela iNkosi uJohn ukuba isayine iMagna Carta e-Runnymede. Nakuba iMagna Carta ivame ukuthandwa njengomthetho-sisekelo wamalungelo entando yeningi, kwakuyisivumelwano sokuthula phakathi kwenkosi nezikhulu zayo ezihlubukayo. Noma kunjalo, yayinelungiselelo elaliyokwenabela phakathi kwamakhulu eminyaka entuthuko engokomthetho: Isahluko 39 samemezela ukuthi "Akekho muntu okhululekile oyobanjwa noma agqunywe ejele, noma aphucwe amalungelo akhe noma impahla, noma aphucwe, noma aphucwe ukuma kwakhe nganoma iyiphi enye indlela, noma siyobe siphoqele abanye ukuba benze kanjalo, ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sokulingana kwakhe noma umthetho wezwe." Le nkulumo yaba yindawo ewumthetho wanamuhla."

IMagna Carta yaphinde yabekwa futhi yaqinisekiswa kaningi phakathi nawo wonke amakhulu ekhulu leshumi nane leminyaka, futhi izimiso zayo zafakwa kancane kancane esikweni lomthetho wamaNgilandi. Inkulumo "ukubekwa phambili komthetho" ngokwayo yavela emyalelweni weNkosi uEdward III, owanikeza ukuthi "akukho muntu wamasi noma isimo esinjani, oyosuswa emazweni akhe noma athathwe, noma athathwe, noma afakwe ejele, noma abulawe, futhi abuyiselwe ngenqubo efanelekile yomthetho, ngaphandle kokuziphendulela ngenqubo efanelekile yenkosi u-Edwa." Lokhu kucacisa ukuthi "awumthetho wezwe" udinga inqubo engokomthetho ngaphambi kokuba umbuso ulahlekelwe amalungelo awo. Ngesikhathi, izinkantolo zesiNgisi zathuthukisa izimfuneko ezithile, zihlanganisa nezimfuneko eziqondile, ukuqaphela, ukubekwa kwesokudla kwecala, ukuqulwa kwecala, ukubekwa kwecala, nokuqulwa kwecala."indlela yokuqulwa kwecala lokuqulwa kwecala.

Ukuchuma Kwamazwe Angaphansi Kwezwe Nenkathi Yokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Amakoloni amaNgisi ayephethe isiko elivamile lomthetho eNyakatho Melika, futhi umqondo wenqubo efanele wagxila kakhulu ekuqapheleni okungokomthetho emakoloni aseMelika. Imithetho-mthetho yamakoloni kanye nomthetho-mthetho kahulumeni wakuqala ngokuvamile wawuhlanganisa izivumelwano zokuqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu ongaphucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle komthetho wezwe. Ukuhlangenwe nakho kokubusa kwamakoloni aseBrithani emashumini eminyaka okuholela eNguquko yaseMelika, nokho, kubonisa ukuthi lezi sivikelo zingaphulwa kalula kangakanani. Intela yentela yaseBrithani ngaphandle kommelelo wekoloni, ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho kahulumeni evumela izikhulu ukuba zihlole noma yiliphi ikhaya ngaphandle kwesizathu, kanye nokudingiswa kwemikhankambiso yamajaji kuzo zonke izimo ezithile kwakumelela lokho okwakubhekwa amakoloni amazwe aseMelika njengesenzo sikahulumeni.

ISimemezelo Senkululeko sazibala ngokucacile lezi zikhalo kuNkosi uGeorge III, kuhlanganise "ukusifaka ezimweni eziningi zezinzuzo zecala likaJury" no"ukusiguqula ngaphaya kolwandle ukuze sihlolwe ukufana nokuphambana." Lokhu kusetshenziswa kabi kwakungekona nje ukuthatheka komthetho-mfashini; kwakuyizenzakalo eziqinisekile ezinamandla awenzile athonya ukuzimisela kwabalawuli ukudala uhulumeni ocindezelwa umthetho. Uma uMthetho-sisekelo uphoqelelwe ngo-1787, nokho, ekuqaleni wawungatholi mthetho owelungelo lokulwela amalungelo. Lokhu kushiyeka kwaba iphuzu elikhulu lokuphikisana phakathi nempikiswano yokulwa komthetho womthetho, kuholele esithembisweni sokuthi umthetho wamalungelo owenezelwe njengomthetho wokuqala webhizinisi ngaphansi kukahulumeni omusha.

Izinqumo Zesihlanu Nezashumi Nane

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu, esagunyazwa njengengxenye yeBill of Rights ngo-1791, sinikeza ngokucacile ukuthi "Akekho umuntu oyothiwa... uncishiwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Leli lungiselelo lasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela, libonisa inkolelo yabahleli be-flamers ukuthi usongo oluyinhloko lwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye lwavela kuhulumeni wezwe kunokuba luvela kuhulumeni. Ngekhulu leshumi elinethoba, i-Acted Proces Clausle yeSichimende sesihlanu yahlala ingaphansi kwesimiso, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuthi imisebenzi kahulumeni wezwe yayilinganiselwe uma kuqhathaniswa nemibuso.

Ukumiswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo-1868, ngemva kweMpi yombango, kwashintsha kakhulu isimo somthetho wenqubo efanele. Ingxenye 1 yokulungisa inikeza ukuthi "Awukho uHulumeni ozomisa noma usebenzise noma yimuphi umthetho ozovala amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi iZwe ngeke lincime noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma ukuphika noma yimuphi umuntu ophethe imithetho elinganayo." Lolulimi lwandisa imfuneko engokomthetho engokomthetho edinga inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho, lwakha isilinganiso sesizwe sokulungaguquguqu okuyoba isisekelo sezinselele ezingokomthetho zokuthatha isinyathelo.

Incazelo yeSichibiyelo se-Acts Programme yeshumi nane ka-Claus ibiyindaba yempikiswano enkulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika. Ezinye izazi nabahluleli baye baphikisa ngokuthi ngokuyinhloko kwakuhloselwe ukuvikela izigqila ezazisanda kukhululwa emithethweni kahulumeni ewubushiqela, kuyilapho abanye beye bakubona njengomthetho-mthetho owengeziwe wamalungelo abantu ohlanganisa isivikelo seBill of Rights nezwe. INkantolo Ephakeme ekugcineni yamukela umbono olandelayo ngemfundiso yokuthatha isigaba, eye yasebenzisa iningi le-Bill of Rights embusweni kahulumeni ngomthetho we-Celaus yeSimende seSimiso se-14.

Izinsika Ezimbili Zenqubo Efanele

Inqubo elindelekile: Ukulunga ekwakheni isinqumo sikahulumeni

Inqubo efanelekile iyingxenye yenqubo efanele ethinta izinqubo uhulumeni okumelwe azilandele ngaphambi kokuba aphuce umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Kungokuyisisekelo mayelana nokulunga enqubweni yokwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni, kuqinisekiswe ukuthi abantu bathola isaziso esanele nethuba lokuzwa ngaphambi kokuba umbuso uthathe isinyathelo esilimaza izithakazelo zabo. Umbuzo oyinhloko kunoma iyiphi inqubo efanelekile yilena: Iyiphi inqubo efanelekile? Impendulo ixhomeke emvelweni yenzalo engxoxisiwe, ingozi yokuswela okunganembile ngaphansi kwezinqubo ezikhona, nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esinenzuzo esinenzuzo ngaphansi kwezeluleko ezisebenzayo.

Ukuqaphela Nezimfuneko Zokuzwa

Ngokwenqubo yokuveza inqubo edingayo, uhulumeni udinga ukuba abantu baqaphele izenzo ezihlongozwayo nangethuba lokuveza udaba lwabo phambi koMenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi. Ukuqaphela kufanele kuqashelwe ukuba kwazise umuntu othintekile ngesenzo esizayo kanye nezizathu okusekelwe kuzo, kubanike ithuba elihle lokusabela. Ukulalela kumelwe kuqhutshwe ngesikhathi esinengqondo nangendlela enengqondo, ukunika lowo muntu ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi obukhona, ofakazi be-axistamine, futhi enze amaphuzu angokomthetho.

Lezi zimfuneko aziphelele futhi azisebenzi ngendlela efanayo kuzo zonke izenzo zikahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi inqubo efanele ivumelana nezimo futhi ifuna isivikelo esingokwesiko esifana naleso esifunwa yisimo esithile. Kwezinye izimo, ukuzwa ngokugcwele kohlobo lokuhlola kungase kudingeke, kanti kwezinye, ukubukezwa kokuqondisa ngokwethukela kungase kwanele. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi izinqubo kumelwe zinikezwe ngokufanele isimo sezithakazelo ezihilelekile kanye nezimo zecala.

Ukulinganisela IMathews v.

Isimiso sanamuhla sokuhlola inqubo yokulinganisela inqubo efanelekile samiswa ebhokisini elingokonyaka ka 1976 Mathews v. Eldridge , lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlela khona ukuhlolwa kwezingxenye ezintathu zokulinganisela. INkantolo yathi ukunquma inqubo efanele idinga ukucatshangelwa kwezici ezintathu: okokuqala, isithakazelo somuntu esizothinteka ngesenzo esingokomthetho; okwesibili, ingozi yokuncishwa kwesithakazelo ngephutha ngenqubo esetshenziswayo, kanye nenani elifanele lezindawo zokuvikela noma ukubuyisela i-procedrual; nelesithathu, isithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo yezokuphatha ezongezelelwe izinqubo.

AmaMathews asetshenziswa ekwakheni izimo ezihlukahlukene, ekuzuzeni kwenhlalakahle ekunqanyulweni kokukhubazeka ezinqubeni zeziboshwa ezithatha isigwebo. Ibonisa indlela ebanzi yokulungisa inqubo edingayo eqaphela isidingo sokulinganisela amalungelo ngamanye namaqiniso asebenzayo esimiso sikahulumeni. Nakuba ukuhlolwa kuye kwagxekwa ezinye izazi ngokunikeza amandla amakhulu kakhulu empumelelo kahulumeni, kulokhu kuseyinqubo eyinhloko yokuhlola inqubo efanelekile ye-procratedrogen enqubweni esemthethweni.

Inqubo Eyinqaba: Ukuvikela Amalungelo Ayisisekelo

Inqubo efanele impikiswano enkulu kodwa ibaluleke ngokufanayo esicini senqubo yemfundiso efanele. Ngokungafani nenqubo efanelekile, egxila ekulinganiseni kwezinqubo ezisetshenziswa uhulumeni, inqubo efanelekile ihlola ukuphakanyiswa komthetho ngokwawo, ibuza ukuthi uhulumeni unakho yini ukuthethelela okwanele kokungena ezindaweni ezithile zenkululeko. Ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni nguhulumeni, ngisho nalapho uhulumeni elandela izinqubo ezilungile.

Amalungelo Ayisisekelo Nobufakazi Obuqinile

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi amalungelo athile asekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni namasiko esizwe, noma abaluleke kakhulu emqondweni wenkululeko egunyaziwe, kangangokuthi afanelwe isivikelo esikhethekile ngaphansi kwe-CURENT Procession Clause. Lamalungelo ayisisekelo ahlanganisa, phakathi kwamanye, ilungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokuveza, ilungelo lokuqondisa ukukhuliswa kwabantwana bomuntu, ilungelo lobuqotho bomzimba, nelungelo lokwenza izinqumo ezithile ezithinta inhliziyo. Uma umthetho uphula ilungelo eliyisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukucubungula okuqinile, okudinga uhulumeni ukubonisa ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esinemfanelo futhi ufanele ukwenzele ukuba ufeze leso sithakazelo.

Imfundiso yenqubo efanelekile yokuzitika iye yaba indaba yempikiswano enkulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, lapho abagxeki bephikisa ngokuthi inikeza abahluleli ukuhlakanipha okukhulu ukushaya imithetho emiswe ngentando yeningi esekelwe ezindinganisweni zabo siqu. Abasekeli basabela ngokuthi inqubo eyisisekelo edinga ukukhishwa isibopho idingekile ukuze bavikele umuntu ngamunye ebushiqelani obunamandla nokuthi izinkantolo zinendima engokomthetho ekutholeni nasekuqikezeni izindinganiso eziyisisekelo ezibekwe eMthethweni - sisekelo.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana

Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu zokusebenza kwenqubo edinga impoqo kakhulu yabangenayo ibiyimfundiso ehlanganisayo, ethi i-Active Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo se 14th "incorporate" amalungiselelo athile eSigqi Samalungelo futhi iwenze asebenze kuhulumeni. Ohulumeni abalandelanayo abanquma ngokuyinhloko phakathi kwawo-1920 nawo 1960, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa iziqinisekiso eziqondile zeSimiso sika-Celasmente samalungelo abantu (Iziphendulo zeSigqi) hlanganise iziphetho zeSigqi Sokuqala senkulumo nenkolo, iSiphendulo sesine sokungaqondisi okungacabangeli nokuqubuka, kanye nesesahluleki somthetho weSithandathu (196) ukusebenzisa iziqinisekiso ze-Actromessacedments.

INkantolo yalahla impikiswano yokuthi amaRoode noma amaGaze eSichibiyelo seshumi nane kwakuyimoto yokuhlanganisa, esikhundleni sokuncika eMthethweni ka-Claus njengomthombo wesivikelo. INkantolo futhi yakwenqaba ukuma kweBhili leMalungelo kufanele isetshenziswe emazweni onke, aziwa ngokuthi ingqikithi, ivuna indlela yokuhlanganisa imvume ekhethekile esetshenziswayo esekelwe esithombeni samalungelo abalulekile ngamunye sohlobo ngalunye. Ekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili, cishe wonke amalungiselelo eBhili lamaLungelo aye afakwa nge-Creastemment, akha isiteshi sesizwe ngasinye esingenakumelana nesimiso sombuso ngamunye esingokomthetho.

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

Izenzakalo Eziphawulekayo Ezilindelekile

UKelly (1970)

Goldberg v.Kelly, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi i-Act Process Claus idinga ukulalelwa okusobala phambi komamukeliswa kunganqanyulwa ezinzuzoni zenhlalakahle. Icala lavela lapho iNew York City ifuna ukuqeda izinzuzo zezenhlalakahle zabamukeli abaningana ngaphandle kokubanika ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi noma ufakazi phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi izinzuzo zenhlalakahle ziyilungelo elingokomthetho lalabo abafanelekelayo, nokuthi ukuqeda lezonzuzo kuphuca abantu isithakazelo sempahla esivikelwe yi-Creaus Claus.

IJaji Brennan, libhalela iningi, lagcizelela ukuthi izinzuzo zezenhlalakahle akuzona uhlobo lokusiza abaswele kodwa yindaba yokushaya umthetho kwabafanelekele. INkantolo yathi inqubo efanele idinga ukuzwa kusengaphambili okuhlanganisa ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi, ukubhekana nofakazi abadlulayo, nokumelelwa yiseluleko. Icala laphawula ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwenqubo yokuvikela esemthethweni emongweni wezinzuzo zikahulumeni futhi lamisa isimiso sokuthi uhulumeni ngeke aphuce abantu ngabanye amagunya omthetho ngaphandle kokunikeza isivikelo esinengqondo.

Mathews v. Eldiridge (1976)

Njengoba kuxoxwe ngenhla, Ama-Mathews v. I-Eldridge yasungula ukuhlola okunezingxenye ezintathu okusetshenziswa izinkantolo ukuthola izinqubo ezidingekayo nge-Curreated Process Claus. Icala lalihilela inselele ezinqubeni ezisetshenziswa yi-Social Security Administration ukuze kuqedwe izinzuzo. Ngokungafani nezinzuzo zenhlalakahle ku [[FLT:] Goldberg v. Kelly, izinzuzo zokukhubazeka zaqedwa ngenxa yobufakazi bezokwelapha obungalinganiswa ngokuzithoba okubhaliwe kunokunikezwa kobufakazi obuphilayo.

INkantolo yathi izinqubo ezisetshenziswa yi-Social Security Administration (ezihlanganisa isaziso sokukhishwa kwemikhakha ehlongozwayo), ithuba lokufaka ubufakazi obubhaliwe bezokwelapha, nelungelo lokuphinde uphinde uthathe izimfuneko zomthetho wokulawula. INkantolo yahlukanisa Goldberg v. Kelly ezisekelwe ezisekelweni ukuthi izinqumo zokukhubazeka zisekelwe enqubeni yenqubo yokuhlolwa kwezempilo esemthethweni kunokuba kusekelwe ekuhlolweni okusekelwe ekuqondiseni okungalawuleki, kunciphisa izingozi zokuswe yiphutha. [[FLT.FLT:2]] Mathes[FLT] ] kusukela lapho ukuhlolwa kwenqubo yokuhlolwa kwe-proccudical.

Miranda v. e - Arizona (1966)

Miranda v. Arizona, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamisa imfuneko yokuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe azise abantu ngabanye ngamalungelo awo angokomthetho ngaphambi kokuqulisa isigwebo sokuqulwa kwemibuzo. Icala lalihilela uErnesto Miranda, owalahlwa icala lokuthumba nokudlwengula okusekelwe ekuvumeni izono ngemva kokuba amaphoyisa embuze ngemibuzo ngaphandle kokumtshela ilungelo lakhe lokuthula noma ilungelo lakhe lokululeka. INkantolo yathi ilungelo leSiphendulo Sesihlanu lokuzinziso sobugqila lidinga ukugcinwa komthetho ukuze kunikezwe izixwayiso eziqondile kubantu ngabanye ababoshweni ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwesigwebo.

Isinqumo seNkantolo sasisekelwe ekuqapheleni ukuthi ukuphenywa kwelungelo lokunakekela umntwana kuhambisana ngokwemvelo nokuthi abasolwayo bangase bangawaqapheli amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo. Isixwayiso seMiranda [1] kuhlanganise nelungelo lokuthula, ilungelo lokululeka, nesixwayiso sokuthi noma yini esolekayo ingasetshenziswa ngokumelene nazo enkantolo, cishe iye yaba esinye sezivikeli eziqashelwa kakhulu ezisemthethweni ezisemthethweni eMelika. Icala ligcizelela isimiso sokuthi inqubo efanelekile idinga izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zithathe izinyathelo zokuvikela amalungelo omthetho womthetho-mthetho, ikakhulukazi emongweni lapho abantu bengase bangazazi khona izikhundla zabo.

Izenzakalo Eziyingqopha - mlando Ezibalulekile

Intambo-jazi (i-Wade (1973) ne-Dobbs v.Jackson Women’s Health (2022)

.Roe v. ingenye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu neziyimpikiswano zokusebenza ezifanele ezimfaneleyo zomuntu oyedwa emlandweni waseMelika. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi i-Celas ye-Century yeSichibiyelo se-14th Reformation ivikela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukuqeda ukukhulelwa, ukuthola ukuthi lelilungelo lingena phakathi kwesivikelo somthetho-mthethweni semfihlo nenkululeko engokomzimba. Umthetho ka-Blackmun waqaphela ukuthi ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo, nakuba lingashiwo ngokucacile eMthethweni-mthethweni-mthethweni, livike yi-Mthethweni eNhlanganweni ka-Claus Claus njengesithakazelo esiyisisekelo.

Cishe eminyakeni engamashumi amahlanu kamuva, iNkantolo Ephakeme yabusa Roe v. Wade ku-[FLT] Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[ [2022]], iphethe ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awufaki ilungelo lokukhipha isisu. Umthetho ka-Alito uveza ukuthi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu alisekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe namasiko nokuthi igunya lokulawula ukukhishwa kwesisu limelwe libuyiselwe kubantu nabameleli babo abakhethiwe. Icala limelela ukushintshwa okuphawulekayo kwenqubo efanelekile ye-jurispra futhi liye labusa izimpikiswano mayelana nenqubo yezenkolo yenkantolo ukuba lisebenzise amalungelo ayisisekelo eMthethweni ngaphansi kwe-Claunicous.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

U-Obergefell v. Hodges, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi i-Seed Procession Claus ne-Livice Procence Claus elinganayo yeSiphendu se-145th Refekstment idinga ukuqaphela imishado efanayo yobulili. Umbono weningi kaKennedy wagcizelela ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo elivikelwe nge-Umklamo ka-Clauske, nokuthi lelilungelo linweba imibhangqwana efanayo nemibhangqwana ehlukene ne-exxtial. Inkantolo yaveza ukuthi ilungelo lokushada lisekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe namasiko, nokuthi ukukhipha imibhangqwana efanayo ephakathini emshadweni liyo iyakuyilahla isithunzi ne-Exptional.

Isinqumo sasiwukunqoba okuphawulekayo kwamalungelo e-LGBTQ futhi samelela ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwezokuvikela okufanelekile kwenqubo. INkantolo yasebenzisa uhlelo oluyisisekelo lwamalungelo asungulwe ezicabeni zangaphambili, ikholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyisithakazelo esiyisisekelo esingenakuphikwa emibhangqwaneni ehlangene nesobulili ngaphandle kwesithakazelo esiphoqelelwe sikahulumeni.

Glucksberg (1997)

UYashington v. Glucksberg, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza uhlelo lwanamuhla lokuhlukanisa amalungelo ayisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-Century Claus. Icala lalihilela ukuvinjelwa kukadokotela-kuzibulala kukahulumeni waseWashington, kanye namachashaza aphikisa ukuthi iNkqubo kaClaus uvikela umuntu ogulayo kwesokudla sokuzibulala ngosizo lwezokwelapha. Inkantolo yalahla le mpikiswano, iphethe ukuthi ilungelo elimisiwe lokusiza ukuzibulala aliyisithakazelo esiyisisekelo senkululeko ekhuselwe yi-Uniactive Proces Claus.

Umbono weqembu elikhulu likaMahluleli Rehnquist uveza ukuhlolwa kwengxenye ezimbili kokuthola amalungelo ayisisekelo: okokuqala, izinkantolo kumelwe zichaze ukugomela kahle ngesilinganiso esifanelekile sokudla amagugu, ukuhlola umlando wesizwe, amasiko angokomthetho, nemikhuba; okwesibili, izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi ilungelo lisekelwe ngokujulile yini emlandweni wesizwe namasiko futhi licacile emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe. [[FLT]] Glucksberg[ ukwakheka komthetho nokuthobela izinqubo zedemokhrasi, kudinga ukuhlaziywa komlando okucophelelayo ngaphambi kokuba kuqashe amalungelo amashasha ngaphansi kwe-Creaus.

Inqubo Efanele Kuma - Administral Nakuyi - adrogations

Izinhlelo zenqubo ezifanele azigcini ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu nasekuqulweni kwemithetho yomphakathi; zisebenza futhi nasendaweni enkulu nekhulayo yomthetho wokuphatha. Izinhlangano zikahulumeni zikahulumeni embusweni, esifundazweni, nase amazingeni endawo zenza izinqumo ezingenakubalwa ezithinta ukuphila kwabantu, inkululeko, nezithakazelo zempahla, kuhlanganise nezinqumo eziphathelene nokuhlinzwa kwezezigwebo, izinzuzo, imvume, nokubuyiswa komthetho. I-Adminitive Procedure Act (A) ka-196) yamisa uhlelo olubanzi lokwenza izinqumo zenhlangano, idinga isaziso nokuphawula nokunikeza izinqubo zokushaya imithetho nokuhlola nokuhlola izinhlangano.

Emkhakheni wokuqondisa, inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba izinhlangano zinikeze abantu isaziso esanele sezenzo ezihlongozwayo, ithuba lokufaka ubufakazi nezimpikiswano, nencazelo enengqondo yezinqumo zokugcina. Izinqubo ezithile ezidingekayo zixhomeke ekudaleni kwesithakazelo esisesigxotsheni nasekulinganiseni izici ezisobala ngaphansi kofakazi abaphikisayo abakhona kanye nocathulo oluphikisayo. Ngokungafani, izinqumo eziphathelene nokuphepha komphakathi zingakwenziwa ngokulandela izimfuneko eziyisisekelo ezisasetshenziswa.

Ukuvela kwezinhlangano zokuqondisa kuye kwadala izinselele ezintsha zenqubo efanelekile yokulawula, njengoba izinhlangano zisebenzisa imibuso ehlanganisa imisebenzi yemithetho, yokuphatha, neyokwahlulela. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi izinhlangano zingawamisa amalungelo abantu phakathi kwezinhlelo zokuphatha, uma lezo zinqumo zigcwalisa izimfuneko eziyisisekelo zenqubo emisiwe nokuthi kunezinqumiso zokwahlulela ezinengqondo. Ukumiswa komthetho wokulawula nenqubo efanele kuhlala kuyingxenye enamandla yokuthuthuka ngokomthetho, ikakhulukazi njengezinhlangano ezithembele kakhulu ezimithethweni nasebuhlakani bokuzenzela ukuze zenze izinqumo ezithinta amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Inqubo Efanele Yobulungisa Bobugebengu

Isimiso sokwahlulela komthetho sinikeza indinganiso ephawulekayo nephakeme kakhulu yokusetshenziswa kwezimiso ezifanele. Uma uhulumeni efuna ukuncisha umuntu inkululeko (noma, ezicabeni ezibulalayo, ukuphila − ngokumangalelwa ngecala lobugebengu, isivikelo se-Curreate Procesting Claus ephezulu kakhulu. UMthetho-sisekelo ufuna ukuba abamangalelwa begwebi bathole isivikelo esiningi sezeluleko ezingokomthetho, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokuthola icala elisheshayo nelasobala, ilungelo lokuba ijaji elingakhethi, ilungelo lokutshelwa ngamacala abamangalelwayo, ilungelo lokubhekana nawo, ilungelo lokuthola ofakazi ngokungemthetho ukuze bathole umusa wabo, kanye nelungelo lokuthola usizo lweseluleko.

Ngalé kwalezi siqinisekiso esiqondile, inqubo efanelekile ehambisana nomongo wobugebengu idinga ubulungisa obuyisisekelo ekuziphatheni konke kobugebengu. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi inqubo efanelekile iyephulwa lapho uhulumeni esebenzisa ubufakazi obungamanga ukuze athole isiqinisekiso, lapho icindezela ubufakazi bokuqamba obubonisa ukuthi izinto zinecala noma isijeziso, noma lapho ihileleka ekuziphatheni okushaqisa unembeza. IMsebenzi kaCelausce ifuna futhi ukuba abamangalelwa becala bafanele ukuma, ukuthi izicelo zamacala zingokwazi nokuzithandela, futhi uhulumeni ufaka zonke izici zomthetho ezibonisa ukuthi unecala liyiphutha elingenakungabaza okunengqondo.

Ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo efanele emacaleni obugebengu kuye kwashintsha kakhulu ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, neNkantolo yaseWarren ku-1960 yandisa izivikelo ezingokwesiko zabamangalelwa ngezinqumo eziphawuliwe ezinjenge Gideon v. Wainright [1963], eyamisa ilungelo lokunikeza izigwebo ezifanele abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abanecala elibi, futhi Mapp v. [1961], eyasebenzisa umthetho owe-ekungath-mthethweni ukuze kuthethwe. Lezi zinqunywe ukuqashelwa kokuthiwa komthetho ofaneleyo inqubo edingayo yokwethenjwa kwezelele ukuvikelwa kwezeleleka kobugebengu nokuvimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni amandla okungathembekile.

Inqubo Efanele Ekuhlawulweni Kwabantu

Izindlela zokuvikela ezifanele ziyasebenza futhi enkantolo yomphakathi, lapho uhulumeni ngezinkantolo zakhe exazulula khona izimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqembu azimele noma phakathi kwamaqembu azimele nohulumeni. I-Gast Proce Claus ifuna ukuba abaqondisi bezwe bathole isaziso esanele sokumangalelwa kwabo kanye nethuba elinengqondo lokuzwakala phambi kwenkantolo engakhethi. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ilungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi, ukuphikisana ngemibono engokomthetho, nokudlulisela izinqumo eziqinile enkantolo ephakeme.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi inqubo efanele ayidingi izinga elifanayo lokuvikelwa kwemithetho emacaleni omphakathi njengasecaleni obugebengu, kodwa izimfuneko eziyisisekelo zezaziso nethuba lokuzwakala zisebenza ngamandla aphelele. Ngokomongo wokulahlekelwa kwezakhamuzi, iNkantolo igomela igomela ukuthi inquba idinga ukuba abanikazi bempahla bathole isaziso esifike ngesikhathi nethuba lokuncintisana nokulahlekelwa kwabo ngaphambi kokuba impahla ithathwe unomphela nguhulumeni. Emongweni wesibopho sombango, iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi inqubo efanelekile idinga ubufakazi obucacile negculisayo ngaphambi kokuba umuntu anikezwe ngokunganaki esigungwini sengqondo.

Ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo efanele ezicaleni zombango kuphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekile ngokuphathelene nokuthola ubulungisa, ikakhulukazi kubantu abathola imali ephansi abangase bangakwazi ukunikeza izimpawu ezingokomthetho. Nakuba i-Century Procesme Claus engekho ngokwezinga elivamile efuna uhulumeni ukuba anikeze iseluleko ezindabeni zomphakathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iqaphele ukuthi inqubo efanele ingadinga isivikelo esikhethekile esikhethekile ezimweni lapho amalungelo ayisisekelo esengozini noma lapho ingozi yokuncishwa kwephutha iphakeme kakhulu.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukulondeka Kwesizwe Nenqubo Ezolandela

Mhlawumbe inselele ebaluleke kakhulu yamanje eyenzekayo ekuzameni ukulondeka kwesizwe. Ukuhlasela kwamaphekula ngoSeptember 11, 2001, kwashukumisela uhulumeni wase-U.S. ukuba uthathe izenzo eziningi ezabangela ukuba kuphakame inqubo engathi sína, kuhlanganise nokuboshwa kwamaphekula asolwayo eGuantanamo Bay, ukusetshenziswa kwezisebenzi zezempi ukuzama ukunqanda abathunjwa, nokuqapha ngokungenasizathu kokuxhumana kwabantu eUnited States nabantu ngabanye. Uhulumeni waphikisa ngokuthi inqubo engokwesiko yesivikelo ayisizi noma iyingozi emongweni wempi yembulunga yonke yokwesaba, kuyilapho abameleli bethi ukuxoshwa kwenqubo yomphakathi kwakungagunyaziwe futhi kungenzangalutho.

INkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngezinye zalezi zinqumo echungechungeni lwezinqumo eziqinisekisa ukubaluleka kwenqubo eyisisekelo ngisho nasemongweni wesizwe wokulondeka. HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], iNkantolo yathi izakhamuzi ezivalelwe njengezakhamuzi ezilwayo ziphethe inqubo efanelekile yokuncintisana nesisekelo esiqinisekile sokuvalelwa kwazo phambi komakhi womthetho. [[FLT:]] Boumemete v. [200] [200] [iindlela], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi abavikeli baseGuanmo Bay banelungelo lokuhlola imvume yomthetho engokwembuyiselo, ngaphandle kwesizathu esiyisisekelo sokukhishwa okungokomthetho, kodwa ngaphandle kokukhishwa kwesidingo esingokomthetho sokugcinwa yisimo sikahulumeni.

Inqubo Yobuchwepheshe, Yokuzifihla Neyokuhlela Izinombolo

Ukuthuthuka ngokushesha kobuchwepheshe kuye kwadala izinselele ezintsha zenqubo efanele abakhi bomthetho-sisekelo ababengeke bazilindele. Ukwanda kokuhlola kwamanani, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa, nokwenza izinqumo ze-algorithism kuphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo mayelana nokuthi inqubo efanele isebenza kanjani enkathini yobuchwepheshe. Lapho izinhlangano zikahulumeni ziqoqa ukwaziswa komuntu siqu ngemishini yokuhlola imishini, ukumba imishini, noma izimfuneko eziphoqelelwe zokugcinwa kwemininingwane, iziphi izivikelo ezisebenzayo? Lapho amanani esetshenziswa ukwenza izinqumo eziphathelene nemali, indawo yokuhlala, noma isigwebo sobugebengu, yimaphi amalungelo abantu abanawo okuqonda futhi baphikise lezo zinqunywe lezo zinqumo?

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathatha izinyathelo ezibalulekile zokuthuthukisa inqubo yokuvikela inqubo edingekayo endaweni yezibalo, ikakhulukazi emongweni weSichibiyelo sesine nomthetho wokuthatha izintambo. Riley v. California [2014] [iNkantolo, ikhonto ibambelele ukuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile awakwazi ukuphengululi okuqukethwe ucingo lwecell phone ngaphandle kwemvume, iqaphela ukuthi umakhalekhukhwini uqukethe ukwaziswa okuningi komuntu siqu okudinga inzuzo yemfihlo. Carpaenter v. United [20]), iNkantolo iphethe ukuthi ukutholakala kocingo ngaphandle kwemvume yokuhlola indawo yesoshalo ngokomthetho kuhlanganisa ulwazi oludinga ukuncishwa kwe-Dishiniselo lwesithathu, ilahla imfundiso yesithathu evunyelwe yimvume yokukhomba ngocingo.

Lezi zimo zimelela izinyathelo ezibalulekile zokuvikela inqubo efanele enkathini ye-amanani, kodwa izinselele ezibalulekile zisasele. Ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho-algoriths ekugwebeni ubugebengu, ngokwesibonelo, kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokubonana, ukulandisa, nokukhetha ukuthi ama-sealthmect angokwesiko angase angabhekisi ngokuphelele. Izazi nabasekeli babiza "inqubo efanelekile" izimiso ezidinga ukuba cace ngokwezinombolo, ilungelo lokuchaza, kanye nokuqondisa komuntu okunenjongo kwezimiso zokwenza izinqumo ezingokomthetho.

Ukufuduka Nokuthutha

Umthetho woku-oda unikeza enye indawo lapho isivikelo senqubo siye saba yindaba yempikiswano enkulu nempikiswano. INkantolo Ephakeme ibilokhu isekela ukuthi i-Unic Procession Claus isebenza kubo bonke abantu eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bakwizinga elinjani lokufuduka, kodwa izinga lesivikelo sezokufuduka ekuhlolweni kwabantu abavela kwamanye amazwe liye lalinganiselwa ngokubekwa kwezindawo zokufuduka njengendaba yokuzikhethela kwabantu esikhundleni sokulawula kunokuba kube yilungelo lomthetho ngokomthetho. Abamelelimele ukumiswa kwezenziwa liba kufanelwe ukuqaphela nokuzwa, nelungelo lokunikeza iseluleko ngezindleko zabo siqu, kanye nethuba lokuhlola ubufakazi obukhona, kodwa isivikelo esikhona enkantolo yokufuduka kwabantu abavelayo ngokuvamile singelutho kunelungelo elikhona enkantolo yezemthetho.

Ukuhlangana kwezimiso zokugcinwa kwezokuthunyelwa kwabantu nomthetho wobugebengu kuye kwadala inqubo edingayo, ikakhulukazi ezimweni lapho abantu abangahlali e-United States beboshwe ngesibopho futhi basuswe ngenxa yezephulamthetho. Ukusetshenziswa kukahulumeni kokukhishwa kwezinqubo zokususa abantu, okuvumela izikhulu zokukhipha ngaphandle kokuzwa, futhi kuye kwabekelwa inselele njengokuphula inqubo efanele. Njengoba ukuthunyelwa kwabantu abavela kwamanye amazwe kuqhubeka kuyimpikiswano yezombangazwe, inqubo yokuvikela abangezona izigebengu ekususweni kwezokususwa kwezokukhishwa kwezindawo, evumela ukuba zikhiphe indawo ebucayi yokuthuthukisa inqubo engokomthetho.

Okwenza Ukuhlela Okufanele Kubaluleke Ngokubusa Ngentando Yeningi

Inqubo elindelekile ayiyona nje imfundiso engokomthetho engokobuchwepheshe; iyingxenye eyinhloko yokubusa kwentando yeningi nokubusa komthetho. Iqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zingaphansi kokuhlolwa okungokomthetho, ukuthi abantu banethuba elinenjongo lokubekela inselele izinqumo zikahulumeni ezithinta ukuphila kwabo, nokuthi ukusetshenziswa kwamandla kahulumeni kucindezelwa yizimiso ezilungile nenhlonipho ngamalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, uhulumeni uba nomthetho oweqikelele, futhi abantu bashiyeka besengozini yokubhekana nezinhloso zalabo abanegunya.

Isivikelo esimelene nezenzo zikahulumeni eziwubushiqela sibaluleke kakhulu emiphakathini encishisiwe futhi esengozini engase intuleke amandla ezombangazwe okuvikela izithakazelo zayo ngenqubo yentando yeningi. Inqubo elindelekile iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nalabo abangathandwa kwezombangazwe noma abaswele emphakathini bayakwazi ukubhekana nezinqubo ezilungile nokubukezwa kokwahlulela okunenjongo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, inqubo efanele ifeza umsebenzi obalulekile wezenzo zikahulumeni. Uma izinqumo zikahulumeni zenziwa ngezinqubo ezingakhethi nezisobala, abantu bathambekele kakhulu ukwamukela lezozinqumo ngisho noma bengavumelani nomphumela. Umbono wokulunga komthetho ubalulekile ekulondolozeni ukwethembela komphakathi ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni nasekubuseni komthetho. Ngalendlela, inqubo efanele ayisona isivikelo kubantu kuphela kodwa futhi nesisekelo sobuqotho nokuqina kokubusa kwedemokrasi.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile ihlala iyisici esibucayi nenamandla sesimiso somthetho waseMelika, sivikela abantu ekuthatheni abantu isinyathelo sohulumeni sobushiqela kuyilapho bevumelanisa nezinselele ezintsha nezimo. Kusukela ekudalweni kwabo eMagna Carta kuya ezinkonzweni zayo zanamuhla ezisemthethweni wokuphatha, ukwahlulela kobugebengu, kanye nenkathi yobuchwepheshe, isimiso sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe uhloniphe izinqubo ezilungile namalungelo ayisisekelo ngaphambi kokuba uncishise abantu ngabanye ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla kuye kwabonakala kuqinile kakhulu. Ukuqonda izimiso zenqubo ye-procedtura ne-atractiose project, izenzakalo ezivelele eziye zathonya intuthuko yabo, kanye nezinselele zamanje eziye zabangela ukuba bavivinye imingcele yabo ibaluleke ekuthuthukiseni impumelelo elwazini futhi basekele izindinganiso zobulungisa nebulungisa ezisezingeni elisezingeni lomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho - sisekelo waseMelika.

Njengezakhamuzi, abafundisi, nochwepheshe bezomthetho, sihlanganyela umthwalo wokuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo efanele iyaqhubeka ifeza injongo yayo eyinhloko yokuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni esiwuthandayo. Lokhu akudingi ukuqonda umthetho kuphela njengoba unjalo kodwa futhi kudinga ukugxila kakhulu ngemibuzo yokuthi yini edingekayo ngenqubo edingekayo emongweni omusha neguquguqukayo. Ikusasa lenqubo efanelekile liyoxhomeka ekubophekeni kwethu okuhlangene esimisweni sokuthi akukho muntu okufanele aphucwe amalungelo abo ngaphandle kokuqaphela okunengqondo, ithuba elilungile lokuzwakala, nokuhlonipha inkululeko eyisisekelo ewuvikelayo uMthetho-sisekelo.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe emlandweni nakuhlelo lwenqubo efanele, hlola i-Cornell Legal Information yenqubo efanele, iqoqo 's project yecala leNkantolo ePhakeme lifushanisa , kanye [FLT] ne i-Curttiontion Annotediod’s Sucture ses Project yeNstry yeSigumentation efanelekile yeNyaka Yokulungisa Inguquko Yesihlanu u-Claus [.